in the Storting and supported the king.

In 1882, the Liberals secured a majority in the Storting. They initiated impeachment proceedings and removed the government of the king’s appointed prime minister in 1884. Consequently, the king had no choice but to appoint the Liberal leader as the new prime minister of Norway, thereby establishing parliamentarism.

An Independent Norway
By the late 19th century, tensions between Sweden and Norway were escalating. The Swedes insisted that the union's prime minister should be Swedish and resisted Norway's demands for its own consular service. In March 1905, the Norwegian government decided to resolve the issue unilaterally. The Storting passed a new consular law, but the Swedish king vetoed it. The Norwegian ministers refused to countersign the veto. When the king declined their resignation, they relinquished power to the Storting. The prime minister declared that the king's refusal to form a new ministry left Norway without a government, which was unacceptable under Norway’s constitution. He argued that the king's failure to fulfill his constitutional duty amounted to abdication. Consequently, the Storting declared the dissolution of the union.

Sweden called for a vote by the Norwegian public to determine if the nation supported the proposed action. In August 1905, only 184 Norwegian voters opposed the move. By September, a final agreement was reached to dissolve the union between Sweden and Norway. For the first time since 1397, Norway became a free and independent country.

Social Changes in Nineteenth Century Norway
Throughout the century, many Norwegian towns experienced significant growth. For instance, Christiania's population soared from roughly 12,000 in 1800 to 228,000 by 1900. The construction of new roads and railway lines greatly enhanced communication and trade between towns. The industry expanded rapidly, especially in the timber and textile sectors. While Norway was primarily an agricultural nation at the start of the decade, by 1900, about 27 percent of Norwegians depended on industry for their livelihood.

The distinct peasant culture, known as Bondekultur, thrived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries but began to wane by the mid-1800s. Medieval stave-churches were demolished; traditional peasant costumes, arts, and crafts were neglected; and folktales were either forgotten or ridiculed. A group of scholars and intellectuals aimed to preserve the Bondekultur. They documented folktales, ballads, legends, and music for future generations and studied peasant arts, crafts, customs, beliefs, and values.

In 1851, the Society for Popular Enlightenment was established by educators and intellectuals. This society played a pivotal role in the introduction of a new school law in 1860, which mandated the creation of permanent schools in rural areas. Soon after, high schools also started to be built in these regions.

Arts in Late-Nineteenth Century Norway
During the 1870s and 1880s, Norwegian literature gained international recognition through the translation of works by writers such as Ibsen, Bjornstjerne Bjornson, Alexander Kielland, and Jonas Lie. These authors explored new themes inspired by societal changes, particularly industrialization and the decline of rural life. Norwegians were also captivated by European literary realism, influenced by writers like Charles Dickens, Gustave Flaubert, and Ivan Turgenev. Additionally, Danish critic Georg Brandes, who argued that literature should address societal issues, had a significant impact. Many writers supported the Pan-Scandinavian movement, which advocated for greater unity among Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.

By the 1890s, Norwegian literature entered the New Romanticism era. Writers shifted their focus from societal roles to the exploration of individual inner lives and psyches. Even Ibsen and his contemporaries began to delve inward in their later works. A new wave of writers, including Nobel Prize winner Knut Hamsun, also emerged during this period.

Significant advancements also occurred in the arts. In 1899, the National Theatre opened in Christiania, with Bjornson as its inaugural director. The 1880s marked a pivotal moment in Norwegian painting. Aspiring painters went to Paris to study the works of artists like Claude Monet. Upon their return, they established a local school of painting focused on realistically yet vividly portraying everyday Norwegian life.

Symbolism
The wild duck is the primary symbol utilized by Ibsen. The duck ends up with the family after being shot by Hakon, which is inherently symbolic. Hakon is the cause of the duck’s misfortune, just as he was responsible for Gina’s downfall. Both the duck and Gina nearly faced ruin. In the duck's case, Hakon’s dog rescued it; in Gina’s case, it was Hakon’s money that saved her from disgrace. For Gregers, the duck, trapped in the mire and debris at the lake's bottom, symbolizes the Ekdal family: Gina; Old Ekdal, who, according to Hakon, is one of those who "dive to the bottom when they get a few slugs in them and never surface again"; and Hjalmar, who Gregers believes has "something of the wild duck" in him, being stuck in a dark "poisonous marsh." Some critics suggest that when Gregers urges Hedvig to sacrifice the duck, he is advocating for the symbolic destruction of the lie that has tainted her entire family.

To deepen this symbolic connection, Gregers views himself as the "absurdly clever dog" that rescues the duck—or the family, or Hjalmar’s life—from the swamp. He is determined to save Hjalmar and lead him to a more authentic existence. However, by seeing himself as a savior, Gregers dismisses the possibility that the duck—or Hjalmar—might end up worse off as a result.

The wild duck holds significant symbolic value for other characters as well. For Old Ekdal, it represents his past life in the wild, where he was happiest. For Hjalmar, the duck serves as a distraction from his current lifestyle.

Imagery
Visual imagery is crucial in the play. Literally, blindness plays a role in the narrative. Hakon is losing his sight, necessitating a wife to care for him. Hedvig is also going blind, connecting her lineage to Hakon Werle; her vision is also used to highlight Hjalmar’s general neglect of her: he prohibits her from reading to preserve her eyesight, yet when convenient, he has her perform meticulous photographic tasks.

As Otto Reinert notes in his essay "Sight Imagery in The Wild Duck," the concept of blindness and sight also holds significant figurative meaning. Gregers is determined "to open Hjalmar Ekdal’s eyes." He insists that Hjalmar "shall see his situation as it is." The significance of Gregers’s actions is emphasized by other dialogues in the play. Hakon tells Gregers, "You have seen me with your mother’s eyes... But you should remember that those eyes were clouded at times," suggesting that Gregers’s perspective of the world is not entirely truthful but rather one imposed on him—just as he wishes to impose his viewpoint on Hjalmar.

Similarly, Hjalmar is oblivious to the harsh truths of life. He ignores his father at the Werle house, pretending he ‘‘didn’t notice’’ Old Ekdal passing through the room. Hjalmar’s spiritual blindness is further highlighted by his belief that he possesses, in Reinert’s words, ‘‘superior insight.’’ When he departs with Gregers after discovering Gina’s past, he thinks it is Gregers who is in trouble and needs ‘‘a friend’s wakeful eyes.’’ Although learning the truth makes him view his past as one long period of ignorance, he continues to live in that false reality, irrationally blaming Hedvig for her parentage. ‘‘I can’t stand to look at you,’’ he says, as if her mere presence is destructive, yet he still cannot face the truth. As Reinert observes, ‘‘Both [Gregers and Hjalmar] are incapable of seeing beneath the surface of facts; both are blind to their own reality.’’

TragicomedyThe Wild Duck is simultaneously tragic and comic—a tragicomedy. Its tragic aspects primarily stem from the devastation that Gregers’s flaw—his obsessive and unrealistic idealism—brings upon the Ekdal household, especially Hedvig. Gregers single-handedly transforms a secure family into an isolated group of individuals who neither trust nor have confidence in one another. Hedvig’s tragedy, although triggered by Gregers’s actions, originates from her father’s rejection of her. His actions are inevitable, driven by his rampant egotism, thus casting him as a tragic character as well.

The play’s comedic elements arise from the absurd actions of the characters and their surroundings: Hjalmar’s insistence on leaving the family while still allowing his wife to serve him breakfast; Old Ekdal’s ‘‘hunting’’ among the dilapidated Christmas trees in the attic; and even the scenes where Hjalmar reproaches Gina are laced with comedy. Additionally, Gregers’s lofty ideals, pretentiously shared and out of place in the shabby environment, carry a broadly comic and unrealistic dimension.

1880: The latter half of the 19th century marks a period of literary brilliance in Norway. Alongside Ibsen, Bjornstjerne Bjornson emerged as a significant writer. By the 1890s, authors like Gabriel Scot and Knut Hamson began incorporating symbolism and neoromanticism into Norwegian literature.

1990s: In the present day, Norway supports its writers through tax exemptions, financial grants, and government purchases for libraries. Norway is among the global leaders in per capita book publications. Approximately 5,000 new titles are released annually, with about two-thirds authored by Norwegians.

1870s: Industrialization starts in Norway during the 1870s. This transition in production spurs a national migration towards urban centers.

1990s: By the 1990s, industry accounts for roughly one-quarter of Norway's gross domestic product and employs about one-third of the workforce. Key industries include petroleum and gas production, food products, metals and metal products, machinery, and transportation equipment.

1880s: In 1889, Norwegian law was amended to mandate school attendance for children aged seven to fourteen. The first compulsory education law had been enacted in 1860.

1990s: During the 1990s, the law requires nine years of basic education, with an optional tenth year. Core subjects include Norwegian, religion, mathematics, music, physical education, science, and English.

Sources
Brustein, Robert, review of The Wild Duck, in The New Republic, April 14, 1986, p. 27.

Bull, Francis, Norsk Litteraturehistories, Volume IV, 1937, pp. 18–19.

Christiani, Dounia B., preface to The Wild Duck, translated by Dounia B. Christiani, W. W. Norton & Company, 1968.

Ellis, Havelock, ‘‘Ibsen,’’ in The New Spirit, 1890.

Howells, W. D., ‘‘Henrik Ibsen,’’ in The North American Review, Summer 1906, pp. 1-14.

McCarthy, Mary, ‘‘The Will and Testament of Ibsen,’’ in Sights and Spectacles, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1956, reprinted in The Wild Duck, translated by Dounia B. Christiani, W. W. Norton & Company, 1968, pp. 182–189.

Peacock, D. Keith, ‘‘The Wild Duck: Overview,’’ in Reference Guide to World Literature, 2nd ed., edited by Lesley Henderson, St. James Press, 1995.

Reinert, Otto, ‘‘Sight Imagery in The Wild Duck,’’ in Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 55, July 1956, pp. 457–462, reprinted in The Wild Duck, translated by Dounia B. Christiani, W. W. Norton & Company, 1968, pp. 177-182.

Rilke, Rainer Maria, review of The Wild Duck, in Selected Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke, Macmillan and Co., p. 95, reprinted in The Wild Duck, translated by Dounia B. Christiani, W. W. Norton & Company, 1968, pp. 216–217.

Shaw, Bernard, review of The Wild Duck, in Our Theatres in the Nineties, p. 138, reprinted in The Wild Duck, translated by Dounia B. Christiani, W. W. Norton & Company, 1968, p. 217.

Smith, Ely Jelliffe, and Louise Brink, ‘‘The Wild Duck,’’ in The Psychoanalytic Review, October 1919, pp. 357-378.

Valency, Maurice, The Flower and the Castle, The Macmillan Company, 1963, pp. 168-176, 379-380, 382-383, reprinted in The Wild Duck, translated by Dounia B. Christiani, W. W. Norton & Company, 1968, pp. 199-207.

Further Study
Ferguson, Robert, Henrik Ibsen, Richard Cohen Books Ltd., 1996. A more recent biography of Ibsen.

Henrik Ibsen, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House Publishers, 1998. A compilation of critical essays on Ibsen’s key works.

Ibsen, Henrik, The Wild Duck, translated by Dounia B. Christiani, W. W. Norton & Company, 1968. This edition is annotated with contemporary reviews, scholarly criticism, Ibsen’s letters, and suggested sources for the play.

Shafer, Yvonne, Henrik Ibsen: Life, Work, and Criticism, York Press, 1985. An accessible discussion of the influences on Ibsen’s work and scholarly evaluations of it.