Form and Content

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White Fang is the tale of a wolf-dog’s fierce struggle for survival against a hostile environment and cruel men. Only late in his life, only after struggle has made him profoundly vicious and an expert killer, does White Fang discover love for a man and the comforts of domesticity. The novel’s twenty-five chapters have five major parts, each with its own locale, theme, rhythm, tone, and climax. The first part, chapters 1 through 3, constitutes a prologue to White Fang’s journey. The tale begins with human experience of the wolf’s natural habitat. Two dogsled drivers delivering a body to Fort McGurry struggle to survive the killing cold and the fierce pursuit of a pack of starving wolves, among them Kiche. Part 2, chapters 4 through 8, depicts the wolf’s experience in nature. Kiche mates, finds a lair, gives birth to White Fang in the spring of 1893, and nurtures him through his first months as a hungry puppy and a novice hunter. In parts 1 and 2, first men and then wolves battle for the food and warmth necessary to survive the cruelties of an Arctic winter. The humans’ horror story in the opening three chapters, although sometimes said to be only loosely attached to the rest of the novel, has an essential similarity to chapters 9 through 25, the horror story of White Fang’s adaptations to an environment dominated by men.

White Fang’s life with humans has three distinct locales. Chapters 9 through 15 are spent in the Yukon Territory traveling with Gray Beaver, a Mackenzie Indian. Then, captive in a cage in Dawson, White Fang is abused for sport by Beauty Smith in chapters 16 through 18. In California in the last seven chapters, the wolf-dog is tamed and willingly employs his strength and intelligence in service of men as companion, ally, and even savior. Thus, the slow evolution of White Fang’s relationship to humans is outlined; his choices take him from freedom in the wild with his mother through life in three consecutive human cultures.

First, the wolf-dog comes in from the cold, choosing to live with and work for the food and fire of an Indian master. White Fang’s life as leader of Gray Beaver’s sled team climaxes with a long trading journey on the Mackenzie, Porcupine, and Yukon rivers. At their destination in Fort Yukon, in the summer of 1898, the wolf-dog is first initiated into the ways of white people and the world of commerce and guns. There, his special strength and intelligence make White Fang a commodity. Sold to Beauty Smith, the five-year-old wolf-dog is a captive, abused and exploited so harshly that he develops into a ferocious killer called “The Fighting Wolf.” The culminating transformation of White Fang’s relationship to humans occurs when he is rescued from Smith by Weedon Scott and treated for the first time with kindness. In the novel’s last seven chapters, allegiance and affection for a man springs from this good treatment, and White Fang becomes “The Blessed Wolf.” In the final chapter, his positive bond to Scott is proven when he risks his own life in valiant defense of the Scott family against the murderous intentions of the escaped convict Jim Hall.

White Fang’s movement from the wild freedom of the Northland during the years of the Klondike Gold Rush to the tame comforts of the Scott estate in California is presented in omniscient narration. An invisible but all-knowing presence is able not only to represent what goes on in the minds and hearts of people but also to represent the nonverbal, nonrational, nonconscious experience of the...

(This entire section contains 706 words.)

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wolf-dog. For example, in chapter 7, White Fang’s first big kill as a puppy is interrupted with omniscient commentary:This was living, though he did not know it. He was realizing his own meaning in the world; he was doing that for which he was made—killing meat and battling to kill it. He was justifying his existence, than which life can do no greater; for life achieves its summit when it does to the uttermost that which it was equipped to do.

Such passages interpret actions and help establish the novel’s themes, but, unfortunately, they can also create an undertow of murky abstraction and sticky sentiment.

Historical Context

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Naturalism

Jack London, alongside writers like Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Frank Norris, is regarded as one of the leading figures in the naturalist movement of American literature. Originating in France during the late nineteenth century, naturalism gained prominence in the United States from roughly 1900 until the end of World War I in 1918. This literary style evolved from prevalent scientific theories of the time, most notably Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Naturalist authors were particularly drawn to the concept of determinism, which suggests that an individual’s fate is shaped by the interaction of heredity (nature) and the environment (nurture). These writers often depicted ordinary characters placed in extreme situations to illustrate how inherent traits and life circumstances combined to determine their destinies. For instance, in Crane’s classic naturalist novel The Red Badge of Courage (1895), the extreme conditions are provided by war. In London’s White Fang and other works, the harsh realities of life in the far North serve this purpose. Throughout White Fang, London frequently notes that minor changes in circumstances—such as if the Indians who first tamed White Fang had camped across the river the night he ran to rejoin them—would have drastically altered the wolf’s fate.

London’s naturalist fiction is particularly fascinating because many of his narratives feature animals as central characters. This approach allows London to explore nature in its purest form, untouched by human influence, as well as how it is altered by human intervention. In White Fang, for instance, wolves are depicted both in their natural habitat and in their interactions with various human cultures and personalities, illustrating the impact each has on the wolves. Coupled with the novel’s objective and detailed style, this makes White Fang a prime example of naturalism.

Conservation

When White Fang was released, the conservation of wilderness areas was a significant concern for Americans. Theodore Roosevelt, known as the most conservation-minded president in U.S. history, was in office and expanded the nation's national forests by over 150 million acres. Roosevelt’s friend John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club and a prominent conservationist, was publishing books about his travels to America’s wild places and advocating for their protection. After centuries of westward expansion, Americans were beginning to realize that, despite the vastness of their country, its wilderness and resources were finite and needed safeguarding.

Furthermore, as more Americans moved to urban areas and life became increasingly industrialized, the idea of the wilderness grew more appealing. Both Americans and Europeans enjoyed reading tales of adventures in untamed regions, which undoubtedly contributed to the widespread popularity of London’s works.

Setting

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This tale unfolds in the wilderness of the Yukon, a harsh setting that appears unfriendly to all forms of life. Amidst violent weather extremes—raging snowstorms and freezing temperatures—both animals and humans fiercely compete for supremacy, as dominance is key to survival. Entering this brutal world, White Fang battles to endure among formidable wild creatures. He is captured by Native Americans, subjected to beatings, sold to different owners, and ultimately transported to a California ranch where he learns to live alongside humans.

Literary Style

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Omniscient Narrator

The narrator of White Fang possesses omniscience, a challenging choice for a writer and an intriguing one for readers, particularly since the main characters are animals. The narrator consistently and confidently details the thoughts and emotions of dogs and wolves, explaining their perceptions of the world. A prime example of this occurs when White Fang, as a young cub, ventures out of the lair for the first time. He had previously viewed the cave entrance as a mysterious wall that his parents could pass through. One day, his curiosity overcomes his fear, and he approaches this “wall of the world.” The narration of his initial exploration begins:

Now the gray cub had lived all his days on a level floor. He had never experienced the hurt of a fall. He did not know what a fall was. So he stepped boldly out upon the air. His hind legs still rested on the cavelip, so he fell forward head downward. The earth struck him a harsh blow on the nose that made him yelp. Then he began rolling down the slope, over and over. He was in a panic of terror. The unknown had caught him at last. It had gripped savagely hold of him.

The narrator then elaborates on how White Fang learns to differentiate between living and non-living things, how he starts to understand depth perception, what he feels when he steps into a stream and the current pulls him, and more. Although readers cannot verify the accuracy of these depictions, it is evident that they are based on careful, prolonged observation of canines. This approach successfully renders the novel’s animals as complex and engaging characters.

Figurative Language

London frequently employs various types of figurative language. The novel’s opening sentence provides an example of personification: “Dark spruce forest frowned on either side the frozen waterway.”

There was a hint in it of laughter, but of a laughter more terrible than any sadness—a laughter that was mirthless as the smile of the Sphinx, a laughter cold as the frost and partaking of the grimness of infallibility.

This figurative language enriches the narrative’s descriptions, making the distant landscape and the unique terrors of the North more vivid to readers by connecting them to more familiar, universal experiences.

One particularly notable figure of speech in the novel is antonomasia, where a title or role name replaces a person's actual name. A familiar example of this technique is referring to Shakespeare as “the Bard.” In White Fang, the narrator uses this device when describing how dogs and wolves perceive humans, calling them “the gods.” London frequently mentions that canines view humans similarly to how humans view their deities. He even establishes a hierarchy among these gods, asserting that canines see white men as “superior gods” compared to Indians. This recognition is attributed to the canines' understanding that the white men in the story wield more power than the Indians.

Literary Techniques

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In "White Fang," London's intent was more overtly didactic. His focus on environmental determinism was prominent as he crafted this companion piece to "The Call of the Wild." Consequently, the novel is written in a more direct and naturalistic style compared to the visionary narrative of Buck's mythical transformation. In this regard, "White Fang" showcases London's belief that content should dominate over form. This didactic approach occasionally leads to some forced dialogue and characters that serve more as symbols or archetypes than as fully realized individuals.

To convey White Fang's perspective, London employs an extremely simplified prose style. The use of short, declarative sentences and a limited vocabulary can sometimes come across as almost childlike. However, this straightforward style effectively mirrors White Fang's viewpoint and aids in illustrating the challenges of his journey from the wild to civilization.

Literary Qualities

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Jack London was part of a turn-of-the-century movement called literary naturalism, and White Fang embodies the traits of this genre: the narrative is presented realistically and straightforwardly, illustrating how the environment influences character development. However, most critics consider White Fang less successful than The Call of the Wild. The plot of White Fang appears more scattered, and the narration lacks the focused perspective seen in London’s earlier work.

Additionally, the character of White Fang is perceived as less fully developed compared to Buck in The Call of the Wild. These differences seem to arise from London's narrative approach. For instance, explaining White Fang's reactions to fire and human behavior requires extensive commentary that can feel like a diversion from the main action. Consequently, White Fang's motivations may seem unclear. London’s descriptions of White Fang's confrontations with other animals are much more gripping than the accounts of his learned obedience to human owners. While London's language in White Fang is notably rich, featuring complex and melodious words, the storytelling is sometimes undermined by his tendency to present a didactic social message.

Social Concerns

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While The Call of the Wild is a mythic story dominated by archetypal themes, its counterpart, White Fang, serves as a sociological fable where London more explicitly explores the deterministic effects of heredity and environment. The Call of the Wild celebrates Buck's return to a primal state, whereas White Fang reverses this journey, chronicling the growth of love and trust in its canine protagonist. Through White Fang, London illustrates that environmental factors can both civilize and brutalize. The novel conveys the optimistic idea that, like dogs and wolves, humans and society have the potential to improve.

Additional Commentary

London frequently adapted concepts from Friedrich Nietzsche, Charles Darwin, and Karl Marx to suit his purposes. For instance, in part 4 of White Fang, London suggests that "compared with the Indians he had known," the white men were "a race of superior gods." Throughout the novel, London emphasizes the godlike nature of all humans from White Fang's perspective. His portrayal of Native Americans and white men, along with his views on natural and social superiority, warrants direct examination. London's depiction of Native Americans is more reflective of Victorian stereotypes than an accurate portrayal of contemporary Eskimos.

London's belief in environmental determinism is a central theme in this story. While not all readers may agree with his Darwinian assumptions, the presentation of these ideas in White Fang is intended to spark thoughtful discussion. The questions posed by the novel are potentially controversial: To what extent does environment shape character? Does civilization truly enhance life? How "human" is White Fang? Should White Fang's transformation be viewed as a gain or a loss?

Compare and Contrast

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Late 1890s–1900s: In 1898, the discovery of gold along the Klondike River prompted the Canadian government to separate the Yukon district from the Northwest Territories, establishing it as a distinct territory. Over thirty thousand prospectors ventured north in search of gold.

Today: The Yukon remains a territory of Canada, with mining (for lead, zinc, silver, copper, and gold) as its primary industry, followed by tourism. The current population of the territory is smaller than the number of people who flocked there during the gold rush of the late 1890s, making it one of the most sparsely populated areas in North America.

Late 1890s–1900s: Before the gold rush led to the construction of the first railroads in the Yukon, travel options were limited to walking, dogsleds, and canoes. The White Pass and Yukon Railway was built to facilitate transportation for gold prospectors and the settlers who followed.

Today: The region's railroads have been decommissioned, replaced by air travel and the Alaska Highway. Nevertheless, some Yukon residents still depend on dogsleds as a primary mode of transportation.

Late 1890s–1900s: Life in the Yukon was extremely harsh, with frequent famines affecting both humans and animals. Native Americans and animals relied on salmon and game for sustenance, and during years of scarcity, only the strongest survived. When food for dogs was unavailable, the dogs would return to the wild and struggle to find enough to eat.

Today: While humans and animals in the Yukon still live in relative isolation and heavily rely on salmon and game, modern air travel and communications have significantly reduced the risk of famine. In the late 1990s, when salmon and game were scarce, and people couldn't feed their sled dogs, the news quickly spread. Pet food companies and other organizations donated food, and private couriers transported it to the Yukon free of charge to prevent widespread starvation among the sled dogs.

Literary Precedents

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Given that White Fang directly showcases London's environmental determinism, the impact of Herbert Spencer's Social Darwinism is especially significant. However, White Fang's journey toward domestication also mirrors London's childhood interest in the novels of Horatio Alger, Jr. Similar to Alger's protagonists, White Fang discovers that virtue can pave the way to respectability. Much like Alger, London vividly depicts the world's harsh realities but implies that improvement is achievable.

Media Adaptations

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White Fang has been adapted into films at least eleven times across seven countries: the United States, France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Australia. Notable among these adaptations are the 1991 American film White Fang, directed by Randal Kleiser and featuring Klaus Maria Brandauer and Ethan Hawke, and the 1994 sequel White Fang II: Myth of the White Wolf, directed by Ken Olin and starring Scott Bairstow and Alfred Molina.

Additionally, there are at least two audio adaptations of White Fang. Penguin Books Limited released an unabridged version on cassette in 1998, narrated by William Hootkins. In 2002, New Millennium Audio released an abridged version, read by the late actor John Ritter.

For Further Reference

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Hamilton, David Mike. "Jack London." In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. This article offers a comprehensive overview of the key biographies and studies about London.

Labor, Earle. Jack London. New York: Twayne, 1974. This introduction to Jack London's life and work is an excellent starting point. It is both authoritative and clearly written.

London, Jack. Jack London: American Rebel Edited by Philip S. Foner. New York: Citadel Press, 1947. This compilation of London's autobiographical and social writings includes articles like "How I Became a Socialist" and "What Life Means to Me."

London, Joan. Jack London and His Times: An Unconventional Biography. 1939. Reprint. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968. Written by London's daughter, this book delves into the development of Jack London's socialist views.

Lundquist, James. Jack London: Adventures, Ideas and Fiction. New York: Ungar, 1987. A highly readable analysis of how London's ideas and personal adventures influenced his fiction.

Walker, Franklin. Jack London and the Klondike. San Marino, CA: Henry E. Huntington Library, 1966. This scholarly work explores Jack London's experiences in the Klondike and their impact on his writing.

Bibliography and Further Reading

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Sources

Allen, Mary, “The Wisdom of the Dogs: Jack London,” in her book Animals in American Literature, published by the University of Illinois Press in 1983, pages 77–96.

Geismar, Maxwell, “Jack London: The Short Cut,” in his work Rebels and Ancestors: The American Novel, 1890–1915, Houghton Mifflin, 1953, pages 139–216.

Kasdin, Steven J., ed., The Collected Jack London, Barnes and Noble Books, 1992, pages 217–329.

Ward, Adolphus William, Sir, Alfred Rayney Waller, William Peterfield Trent, John Erskine, Stuart Pratt Sherman, and Carl Van Doren, eds., The Cambridge History of English and American Literature: An Encyclopedia in Eighteen Volumes, Vol. XVI, Cambridge University Press and G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1907–1921.

Further Reading

Dutcher, James, Jamie Dutcher, and James Manfull, Wolves at Our Door: The Extraordinary Story of the Couple Who Lived with Wolves, Pocket Star, 2002. James Dutcher and his wife, Jamie, spent six years living with a wolf pack in Idaho’s Sawtooth Mountains. Their documentary film, also titled Wolves at Our Door, won an Emmy Award. This book details their experiences with the wolves, who resided in a twenty-acre enclosure with the Dutchers.

Kershaw, Alex, Jack London: A Life, Griffin, 1999. This engaging biography covers all aspects of London’s life, including his political views, his love for the wilderness and adventure, and his writing career.

Lawlor, Mary, Recalling the Wild: Naturalism and the Closing of the American West, Rutgers University Press, 2000. Lawlor explores the various ways Americans have perceived the West throughout history and examines how the literature of different periods both influenced and reflected these ideas, with a major focus on naturalism.

Pizer, Donald, ed., The Cambridge Companion to American Realism and Naturalism: From Howells to London, Cambridge University Press, 1995. Pizer discusses realism and naturalism as literary movements and provides in-depth analysis of ten representative works, including London’s The Call of the Wild.

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