The period in English history from 1670 to 1729, during which Congreve lived and worked, was marked by a significant political event that gave rise to the literary tradition known as Restoration drama. In 1660, Charles II ascended the throne, restoring the monarchy, which had been in exile, to power in England. Although this restoration period was brief (with Parliament regaining control in 1688), it was crucial to Western culture as it created an ideal environment for the comedy of manners.

English comedies of this era, including those by Congreve, used the behaviors of high society and the aristocracy as material for satire. These works focused on what Henry T. E. Perry describes in The Comic Spirit in Restoration Drama as ‘‘the surface of a highly polished and fundamentally insecure civilization.’’ The lively licentiousness of the new court was a reaction against the civil war of the 1640s, which had led to the monarchy's dissolution and the rise of a Puritanical mood across the country. As Joseph Wood Krutch notes in Comedy and Conscience After the Restoration, the court of Charles II

aimed to make the future entirely different from the past. The sin of regicide committed by the previous generation made it seem almost pious to undo everything they had done; to tear down what had been built and rebuild what had been destroyed; to despise what had been loved and love what had been despised.

King Charles had a great love for the theatre, and the Restoration comedies that flourished during his reign offer abundant cultural evidence of the sophisticated decadence of the era. In the theatres, audiences often tried to demonstrate that the dramatic characters were indeed reflections of themselves. High society gentlemen were loud and lewd, more concerned with the appearance of their wigs than the play itself, eager to appear witty and cruel, and determined to maintain their reputations as gallants by any means necessary, no matter how barbaric. Krutch observes that it is not surprising that behavior and language that would shock modern audiences merely amused those of the seventeenth century. He writes,

‘‘Dramatists were not perverse creatures creating monsters to debase the audience, but...were simply holding a mirror up to nature, or rather, to that part of nature most familiar to their fashionable audience.’’

Not all of England was inhabited by the fashionable elite or high society. Many Puritans resided within the middle and lower classes, and much of the literature from this era was either religious, scientific, or philosophical. John Bunyan published "Pilgrim's Progress" in 1684, while John Locke released his "Essay Concerning Humane Understanding" in 1690. Locke's epistemology and Bunyan's religious fervor were worlds apart from the London stage. It is noteworthy that critics like the Puritan moralist Jeremy Collier—whose critiques of the stage epitomized the dogmatic opposition to it—spearheaded efforts to "reform" English theatre. Collier's assault on the theatre occurred two years before the performance of The Way of the World. This play, therefore, can be seen as a humorous rebuttal to the criticisms aimed at the stage, as well as a symbolic marker at the historical point where Restoration comedy was transitioning to its next form, known as Sentimental comedy.

Restoration Comedy

Congreve's plays fall under the genre of Restoration comedy. The term "Restoration" refers to the reinstatement of the monarchy in England with Charles II's return to the throne in 1660 following a period of social turmoil. In English literature, the Restoration "age" mirrors this political era, spanning roughly from 1660 to the revolution in 1688, when Parliament regained authority. This genre is marked by its satirical perspective on contemporary society, particularly focusing on the tension between societal norms and individual desires. The comedic characters often reflect the superficial aristocrats of court society, featuring libertines, wits, gallants, and dandies. The hero is typically cultured and critical of trends and traditions. For instance, in The Way of the World, Mirabell outsmarts the other schemers, achieving love, wealth, and the admiration of other characters. The works of George Etherege, William Wycherley, Sir John Vanbrugh, and George Farquhar also belong to the English tradition of Restoration comedy.

Setting

Congreve's play is set in London, a fitting location since the plot revolves around the intricacies of fashionable society. The play captures the manners and customs of London life in 1700, the year it was first staged. Within the play, Congreve juxtaposes the pretentious, artificial (and often morally questionable) behaviors of "Town" life with the more unrefined but genuine country manners embodied by the character Sir Wilfull. The play's five acts feature three main settings: a chocolate house, St. James Park, and Lady Wishfort's London residence. Each location offers insight into how characters behave in both public and private spheres.

In Act I, the main male characters gather in the chocolate house to drink and gamble. This setting is depicted as a male-dominated space where Congreve introduces the audience to the social norms governing their interactions. In Act II, the scene transitions to St. James Park, a more open and public environment where both men and women engage with one another. This setting is crucial as it allows Congreve to highlight the contrast between the outward display of good manners and the underlying schemes of slander, deceit, and trickery that unfold between couples. The park, being a place where people come to see and be seen, becomes central to the plot as reputations are either damaged or enhanced. The subsequent three acts take place in Lady Wishfort's house. This setting is fitting because Lady Wishfort's wealth and her role as the family matriarch are pivotal to the play's storyline. The house is essential to the narrative, featuring both public and private spaces—closets for eavesdropping, rooms that can be locked, and chambers where the private behaviors of characters starkly contrast with their public personas. It is within the private confines of the house that the management or mismanagement of domestic affairs—such as marriage, dowry negotiations, matchmaking, and sexual intrigues—unfolds most appropriately.

Five-Act Play

Congreve follows a well-established tradition of dramatists, dating back to the classical period, who structured their plays into five acts of roughly equal length and duration. The action builds up to a climax in the third act before descending to a resolution. Typically, as seen in Congreve's play, the first act introduces the characters and sets the stage for the plot, providing background information that helps the audience grasp the relationships between characters and the thematic direction of the play. For instance, in the first act, Congreve introduces the main male characters, sets up a romantic conflict, positions the hero in opposition to the superficial manners of the era, and signals that the dramatic action will revolve around courtship. The second act then complicates the plot, heightens the conflict, and leads the audience to the crisis of the third act, where the action reaches its most thrilling turning point.

In the second act, the women join the men in the park, setting the stage for intrigue, the exposure of extramarital affairs, and the development of a plan to deceive Lady Wishfort into consenting to Mirabell and Millamant's marriage. This naturally progresses to the third act, where all characters gather at Lady Wishfort's house. Here, Fainall and Marwood scheme their malicious plan to manipulate Lady Wishfort. The suspense peaks in the third act. The fourth act sees the resolution of various subplots, with the merriment reaching its zenith: Millamant and Mirabell negotiate their famous prenuptial agreement, Sir Wilfull showcases his best drunken performance, and the fake Sir Rowland proposes to Lady Wishfort, only to be thwarted by Marwood and Fainall's wicked schemes. In the fifth act, the plots are untangled, culminating in a joyous marriage contract between the two protagonists.

Dramatic Devices

Congreve skillfully employs several dramatic devices, including impersonation (and disguise), the foil, comic relief, counterplot, and hyperbole. These elements are crucial for the progression of the action and the success of the comedy.

Impersonation is a key tactic used by Mirabell to trick Lady Wishfort into relinquishing her niece. By having Waitwell pose as Sir Rowland, Mirabell aims to ignite Lady Wishfort's passion, coax her into marrying Sir Rowland, and then, upon revealing the ruse, compel her to approve his marriage to Millamant. Disguise also appears in two other instances—when Marwood dons a mask to avoid detection in the park after arguing with Fainall, and when she hides in a closet to eavesdrop on Mirabell's scheme. Pretense and disguise are fundamental to comedy, and this play is rich with them. Everyone is pretending: Lady Wishfort hides her age with layers of makeup and feigns indifference to men; Mrs. Fainall seems like a wife under her husband's thumb but is actually a savvy businesswoman. Mirabell pretends to be Lady Wishfort's lover; Fainall seems to be an honest husband; Foible is not the loyal maid she appears to be; and Sir Wilfull humorously pretends to court Millamant, who, in turn, proves that the seemingly shallow and capricious "femme fatale" is actually an intelligent, passionate, and suitable match for Mirabell.

A character can act as a foil to the protagonist or hero by embodying undesirable traits or immoral behavior, thus making the hero appear more virtuous and admirable by comparison. For instance, it's evident how Fainall serves as a foil to Mirabell. Both are gentlemen and both are scheming to achieve their objectives. However, Fainall's deceitfulness and his readiness to betray everyone for his gain brand him as a villain. In the shadow of Fainall's malevolence, Mirabell stands out as a true gentleman, rescuing Mrs. Fainall and preserving Lady Wishfort's reputation and fortune. He wins his bride as a reward and successfully brings the story to a happy conclusion. A similar contrast can be drawn between Marwood and Millamant.

Comic relief does exactly what its name implies—it introduces humor to alleviate the tension arising from the conflict in the plot. Paradoxically, comic relief is intended both to reduce emotional intensity and to underscore the gravity of the potential crisis. In Congreve's play, as in all well-crafted dramatic comedies, tragedy plays a significant role. The tension serves as the reverse side of the coin that makes the comedy effective. Throughout the play, humorous remarks or observations break the suspense of serious moments. For example, in Act V, Mirabell enters Lady Wishfort's presence after being cast out in disgrace. His future hinges on this moment as he must finalize his plan to free Lady Wishfort from her adversaries and win Millamant. Enter Sir Wilfull, who, stepping into the serious situation, offers words of encouragement:

Look up Man, I'll stand by you, 'sbud an she do frown, she can't kill you;—besides—Hearkee she dare not frown desperately, because her face is none of her own; 'Sheart an she shou'd her forehead wou'd wrinkle like the Coat of a Cream-cheese.

Sir Wilfull manages to remind the audience of the gravity of the situation while immediately diffusing any sense of danger by referencing Lady Wishfort's well-known vanity and her desperate efforts to maintain her appearance.

By employing counterplots or subplots, Congreve mirrors the themes presented in the main storyline. Subplots complicate the narrative and are designed to further engage the audience, diversify the theme, and convey a sense of a broader world beyond the heroes' lives. Marwood and Fainall's conspiracy to ruin Lady Wishfort serves as a counter to Mirabell's own scheme to win her niece's hand. Additionally, Lady Wishfort secretly plans to marry her niece to Sir Wilfull while she herself intends to marry Sir Rowland (Mirabell's feigned uncle), hoping to thwart Mirabell's marriage prospects and have him disinherited simultaneously.

Hyperbole (intentional and obvious exaggeration) works hand in hand with understatement (deliberately restrained and thus ironic expressions of reality) to enhance comedy's effectiveness. These literary devices also help to reveal cultural stereotypes and, particularly in this play, entrenched beliefs about male and female behavior. Congreve's play is rife with examples of hyperbole and understatement.

The two "experts" in the play are Witwoud and Petulant, each characterized by a sharp wit frequently used to insult or outmaneuver an adversary. In Act III, Petulant aims to insult Sir Wilfull by commenting on the obvious signs of his travels. "I presume," he says, "upon the Information of your Boots." Petulant's demeanor and speech are transparently absurd and pretentious. However, Sir Wilfull is unfazed and responds with equally exaggerated and deliberate wit, "If you are not satisfy'd with the Information of my Boots, Sir if you will step to the Stable, you may enquire further of my Horse, Sir."

In the same act, a servant entering with Sir Wilfull provides a deliberately understated comment that Lady Wishfort is aging to the point where it takes her all morning to get ready for public appearance. It is afternoon, and Sir Wilfull has inquired whether the servant would even recognize Lady Wishfort, given that he has only been employed for a week. The servant replies, "Why truly Sir, I cannot safely swear to her Face in a Morning, before she is dress'd. ‘Tis like I may give a shrew'd guess at her by this time."

1600s: Artists often rely on the support of affluent aristocrats or nobles for both financial aid and creative motivation. In his dedication of The Way of the World to "The Right Honourable Ralph Earl of Mountague," Congreve expresses his appreciation and respect for the earl's "protection" of the play. Congreve began working on it shortly after spending the summer with the Earl, drawing inspiration from the people he encountered at the Earl's residence.

Today: Artists frequently receive backing through public grants and residencies, with seasoned writers often mentoring younger ones. The traditional patronage system has been replaced by professional agents, and authors now rely on publishers to purchase and market their work.

1600s: During Congreve's era, the theatre is a lively and chaotic place. Prostitutes and people of dubious character crowd the "pits," while fashionable men and women in the boxes engage in loud, "witty" remarks and spread malicious gossip, making it difficult for actors to be heard over the audience.

Today: Theatre audiences are now polite and attentive. Although critics remain as harsh as they were in Congreve's time, it is no longer considered acceptable or fashionable to hiss, boo, or display disruptive behavior during a performance.

1600s: Theatre is one of the few public entertainment options available, but during Congreve's time, only two theatres operate in London. Since plays are designed for a broad audience, theatre tickets are priced affordably for nearly everyone.

Today: Numerous forms of public entertainment now exist. While cinema has become the most popular and affordable medium for drama, live theatre, particularly in urban areas, continues to be a significant cultural outlet. However, theatre tickets are generally expensive and often need to be purchased well in advance.

1660s: The Stuart courts regain power following an English civil war that temporarily dissolved the monarchy. The plays of this period reflect the restoration of the aristocracy, often portraying high society's immorality and decadence in a comedic light.

Today: Modern comedies also reflect contemporary life and societal norms. Just as in the late seventeenth century, today's popular comedies tackle similar themes. For instance, Neil Simon's plays frequently explore marital relationships and gender conflicts.

1600s: In the late seventeenth century, critics push for theatre reform, deeming it too licentious. This drive for reform is largely influenced by England's predominantly Christian society, which retains strong Calvinist values.

Today: The National Endowment for the Arts, a federally-funded grant agency, faces criticism for sponsoring art that some government officials consider pornographic and lacking in artistic value.

1600s: Women have limited political rights and little to no economic independence. Upon marriage, women of means are required to surrender their property to their husbands' control and rely on them for financial support.

Today: Legally, women enjoy political equality with men and have full control over their own property and financial matters. In modern marriages, it is typical for property and finances to be jointly owned, and the majority of women contribute to the household income by working.

SOURCES

Birdsall, Virginia Ogden, Wild Civility: The English Comic Spirit on the Restoration Stage, Indiana University Press, 1970, pp. 227-52.

Congreve, William, The Complete Plays of William Congreve, edited by Herbert Davis, University of Chicago Press, 1967, pp. 386-79.

Dobráee, Bonamy, William Congreve, Longmans, Green & Co., 1963.

Hume, Robert, The Rakish Stage: Studies in English Drama, 1660-1800, Southern Illinois University Press, 1983.

Krutch, Joseph Wood, Comedy and Conscience after the Restoration, Columbia University Press, 1949.

Perry, Henry Ten Eyck, The Comic Spirit in Restoration Drama, Russell & Russell, Inc., 1962, pp. 56-81.

Wilcox, John, The Relation of Moliére to Restoration Comedy, Benjamin Blom, 1964, pp. 154-201.

FURTHER READING

Gardiner, Samuel R., History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649, London, 1886-1891.
Gardiner examines the Civil War that temporarily halted the monarchy in England and instituted a parliamentary government. The "Restoration" of the monarchy occurred when Charles II ascended the throne in 1660.

Holland, Norman, The First Modern Comedies: The Significance of Etherege, Wycherley, and Congreve, Harvard University Press, 1959.
Holland offers a comprehensive analysis of three Restoration playwrights, their influences, and their successors.

Johnson, Samuel, ‘‘Preface to William Congreve’’ in Lives of the English Poets, 1781.
Johnson's prominence is such that the latter eighteenth century is often dubbed the "Age of Johnson." His collection of biographies on poets from Cowley to Gray provides amusing, sometimes critical, but always perceptive commentary on the literary titans of the era. The language in the "Preface" is notably witty, sophisticated, and sharp. He details the life and work of Congreve from a perspective just fifty years after Congreve's death.

Loftis, John, Comedy and Society from Congreve to Fielding, Stanford University Press, 1959.
As suggested by its title, this critical work explores the connection between social history and culture in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The book is particularly relevant in its examination of moral issues, social customs, and theatrical values.