the sun deity, while simultaneously being marked as prey for many other creatures. "All the world will be your enemy, Prince with a Thousand Enemies, and whenever they catch you, they will kill you. But first they must catch you, digger, listener, runner, prince with the swift warning." Other stories recount how El-ahrairah stole the king's lettuce, stood trial for taking Prince Rainbow's carrots, offered his life to the Black Rabbit of Inle (Death personified) to save his people, and outsmarted a large dog, among other tales. These stories strengthen the rabbits' sense of shared heritage and reinforce their self-image as swift, clever, compassionate, and community-oriented beings. Traditional rabbit virtues echo old-fashioned human values: the hero El-ahrairah is always ready to support his friends, sacrifice himself for them, and fight for his beliefs. Simultaneously, he is swift, cunning, possesses a keen sense of humor, and is an expert storyteller, all highly valued traits among rabbits. These myths unite the rabbits during challenging times and inspire them with strategies for their own struggles.

Naturalistic Detail

Equally notable as Adams's use of myth, yet contrasting it, is his incorporation of meticulously observed, factual details about rabbit life and nature. Many chapter epigrams are taken from naturalist R. M. Lockley's book The Private Life of the Rabbit, which Adams acknowledges in his credits. Adams clearly drew inspiration and information from this book to enhance his portrayals of rabbit behavior and "traditions." He was also an astute observer of various natural phenomena, including weather patterns, flowering seasons, insect movements and appearances, and the habitats of different birds and plants. A list of all the birds, plants, animals, and insects he mentions would likely form a comprehensive field guide to the region of England where the story unfolds.

As the rabbits journey across the landscape, Adams meticulously observes and describes the scents, textures, and wildlife of the diverse terrains they traverse, from the moist riverbank to the enigmatic and perilous forest, to the peaty, boggy, rocky uplands, to the high, pristine elevation of Watership Down. All these locations are real—though the characters are fictional—and these vivid details anchor the reader in Adams's setting, lend authenticity to the narrative, and encourage the reader to believe in the "reality" of the tale.

Animal Communication

An intriguing aspect of the book is that in Adams's universe, rabbits are capable of communicating with each other and with other animals. However, when they converse with different species, it is done through a kind of universal pidgin or basic language that all animals use for interspecies communication. The only "animal" unable to understand the rabbits, and vice versa, is the human. In Adams's narrative, humans exist outside the natural order and often oppose it, with their presence almost always resulting in death and destruction. The exception is Lucy, the farmer's daughter, who rescues Hazel and insists the doctor return him to the warren in his car. Perhaps her innocence as a child makes her more connected to animals than adults are. The book challenges the typical view of animals as "dumb" beings unable to feel or communicate; instead, it portrays humans as the ones who are thoughtless and speechless. Humans kill without consideration, and unlike natural predators like foxes that kill to survive, they mindlessly drive their cars or construct developments, oblivious to the havoc they wreak.

The success of Watership Down can be attributed to several stylistic elements. One notable technique is the use of epigraphs at the beginning of each chapter. These epigraphs, sourced from the Bible, classical literature, English poetry, science, and folklore, guide the narrative by hinting at the action's direction. They also underscore the thematic depth by suggesting the gravity of the events. When passages from Shakespeare, Blake, and Saint Paul are used to illuminate the tale, it becomes evident that the story goes beyond merely being an entertaining narrative about rabbits. Additionally, the epigraphs align Watership Down with the tradition of the nineteenth-century English novel, which often employed such epigraphs to convey seriousness.

The plot structure of Watership Down draws suggestive parallels to the Roman epic, the Aeneid. The rabbits' escape from the doomed Sandleford, their temporary stay at Cowslip, and their battle with the Efrafa warren mirror Aeneas's flight from besieged Troy, his romance with Dido at Carthage, and his warfare against Turnus in Latium to establish a city for the surviving Trojans. Like the epigraphs, this epic allusion establishes Watership Down as a substantial literary work.

Animal stories have been part of human imagination for ages. Fables often use animals to symbolize human behavior, and fairy tales frequently feature animals with magical powers that alter human destiny. Other animal stories, such as Anna Sewell's Black Beauty (1877) and Jack London's The Call of the Wild (1903), depict the animals' interactions with humans, often in a sentimental tone. Watership Down sets itself apart by distancing from the human world and by Adams's skill in having his animals speak in human language while retaining their rabbit behaviors, instincts, and knowledge. Adams also steers clear of the didactic nature typical in animal fiction, avoiding explicit lessons in human ethics or morals.

"Watership Down" narrates the journey of a small group of male rabbits who flee a warren threatened by developers. They traverse a hostile landscape and eventually establish a new warren by taking females from a nearby community. After the book became a best seller, Adams shared in interviews that his goals were to create an engaging, suspenseful story, honor the stunning English countryside (with Watership Down being an actual location), and explore the traits of effective leadership.

Adams's latter two goals reveal how he addressed themes significant to early 1970s readers. His homage to the English countryside leans more ecological than pastoral. Adams's portrayal of rabbit habitats illustrates the ecosystem of a rural setting, emphasizing the importance of balance among all living entities. Disruption of any part of the ecosystem can lead to the deterioration of the entire environment. His depiction of leadership provides a hopeful image for a society that seems to struggle with accepting guidance from anyone other than media personalities, polished politicians, or forceful ideologues.

Additional Commentary

Adams's tribute to the English countryside focuses more on ecology than on pastoral themes. His depiction of rabbit behavior and their habitat highlights the delicate equilibrium within a rural ecosystem. If any component of this ecosystem is disrupted, the entire environment can suffer. Adams presents a positive model of leadership to a society that appears to have difficulty accepting guidance from anyone other than media figures, well-polished politicians, or ideological extremists.

The success of "Watership Down" can be attributed to several stylistic features. One key element is Adams's meticulous attention to the novel's landscape. By providing a detailed map of the area around Nuthanger Farm and frequently describing the countryside and weather, Adams crafts a vivid and immersive setting. This makes it seem entirely natural for readers to overhear the conversations or thoughts of rabbits.

Another notable technique is the use of epigraphs at the start of each chapter. These epigraphs showcase Adams's extensive reading, drawing from sources such as the Bible, classical literature, English poetry, science, and folklore. They serve a dual purpose: guiding the reader on the narrative's direction and emphasizing the gravity of the story. By referencing works from Shakespeare, Blake, and Saint Paul, the epigraphs suggest that this rabbit tale is more than just a whimsical story. Additionally, they align "Watership Down" with the tradition of nineteenth-century English novels, which often included epigraphs to signify seriousness.

A third stylistic feature is the plot structure, which bears suggestive parallels to the Roman epic, "The Aeneid." The rabbits' escape from the doomed Sandleford, their temporary stay at Cowslip, and the battle with the Efrafa warren are reminiscent of Aeneas's flight from besieged Troy, his affair with Dido in Carthage, and his conflict with Turnus in Latium to establish a city for the surviving Trojans. Much like the epigraphs, this epic allusion positions "Watership Down" as a significant literary work.

Animal stories have been a part of human imagination for ages. Fables use animals to symbolize human behavior, while fairy tales often feature animals with magical abilities that alter human fate. Novels featuring animal characters date back almost as far as novels themselves; "Pompey the Little" (1751) was published just eleven years after Samuel Richardson's "Pamela," often considered the first English novel. Classics in this genre include Anna Sewell's "Black Beauty," Jack London's "The Call of the Wild" (1903), Rudyard Kipling's "The Jungle Book" (1894), and Marjorie Rawlings's "The Yearling" (1938). In these stories, the interactions between animal characters and humans are central and are often portrayed with sentimental language. "Watership Down" stands out due to the distance from the human world and Adams's skill in having the animals speak in human language while maintaining their rabbit behavior, instincts, and understanding. Another strength of "Watership Down" is its avoidance of the didactic tendency found in animal fiction, which often involves overtly teaching human ethics or morals.

While many fans of Watership Down have longed for a follow-up story, Adams has yet to fulfill their wishes. He might feel that the allure of the tale lies in its singular and imaginative portrayal of the rabbit world.

In his third novel, Adams delves into the lives of different creatures. The Plague Dogs follows two dogs, Snitter and Rowf, who manage to escape from a scientific research facility. Experiencing the wild for the first time, Snitter and Rowf survive with the aid of Tod, a cunning fox skilled in pilfering chickens and hunting sheep. The dogs manage to avoid being captured until they are unexpectedly reunited with their owner, culminating in a joyful conclusion.

These dog characters are crafted with the same attention to detail as the rabbits in Watership Down. Readers find themselves instinctively rooting for their freedom, much like they hoped for Hazel's group to discover a secure warren. However, Adams's depiction of the canine world lacks the depth of his rabbit world. It doesn't have the mythology, psychology, or political elements that made the warren feel so convincingly real. The dogs interact extensively with humans, who are more of a background presence in Watership Down.

In 1978, Martin Rosen took on the roles of writer, producer, and director for an animated adaptation of Watership Down. Rosen's screenplay, which streamlines the book's events, places emphasis on the ecological theme. The advanced animation style avoids the sentimentality typical of Disney's animal films, appealing to both adults and children. Featuring a notable cast of actors, including Sir Ralph Richardson and Zero Mostel, the film provides the voices. It achieved more critical acclaim than commercial success.

Watership Down was transformed into an animated film in 1978. It was produced by Martin Rosen from Nepenthe Productions and directed by both John Hubley and Martin Rosen. The voice cast featured Joss Ackland as the Black Rabbit, Richard Briers as Fiver, Michael Graham-Cox as Bigwig, Michael Hordern as Frith and the narrator, and John Hurt as Hazel.

Anderson, Celia Catlett. "Troy, Carthage, and Watership Down." Children's Literature Association Quarterly 8 (Spring 1983): 12-13. Highlights the epic similarities with Virgil's Aeneid.

Chapman, E. L. "The Shaman as Hero and Spiritual Leader: Richard Adams's Mythmaking in Watership Down and Shardik." Mythlore 5 (Autumn 1978): 7-11. Examines the significance of Fiver's character.

Green, Timothy. "Richard Adams's Long Journey from Watership Down." Smithsonian (July 1979): 76-82. Includes photographs of the landscapes that inspired Watership Down and The Plague Dogs, along with quotes from Adams about his fiction's purpose.

Metzger, Linda. "Richard Adams." In Contemporary Authors New Revision Series. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 1981. This informative survey offers biographical details, a bibliography, and examples of reviews of Adams's novels.

Pawling, Christopher. "Watership Down: Rolling Back to the 1960s." In Popular Fiction and Social Change, edited by Christopher Pawling. New York: St. Martin's, 1984. Examines the novel's pastoral and quest aspects, arguing that it embodies the values of a conservative middle class.

Shippey, T. A. Watership Down. In Survey of Modern Fantasy Literature. Vol. 4. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem, 1983. Provides an analysis of the plot, characters, and themes.

Sources

Campbell, Joseph, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Bollingen, 1949.

Clift, Jean Dalby, and Wallace B. Clift, The Archetype of Pilgrimage, Paulist Press, 1996.

Hume, Kathryn, Fantasy and Mimesis: Responses to Reality in Western Literature, Methuen, 1984.

Hunt, Peter, ed., International Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature, Routledge, 1996.

Levoy, Gregg, Callings, Three Rivers Press, 1997.

Lurie, Alison, Review, in New York Review of Books, April 18, 1974.

MacRae, Cathi Dunn, Presenting Young Adult Fantasy Fiction, Twayne Publishers, 1998.

Mano, D. Keith, Review, in National Review, April 26, 1974.

Rawicz, Slavomir, The Long Walk: The True Story of a Trek to Freedom, Lyons Press, 1956.

Searles, Baird, Beth Meacham, and Michael Franklin, A Reader's Guide to Fantasy, Facts on File, 1982.

Tymn, Marshall B., Kenneth J. Zahorski, and Robert H. Boyer, Fantasy Literature: A Core Collection and Reference Guide, R. R. Bowker, 1979.

For Further Study

Adams, Richard, The Day Gone By, Century Hutchinson, 1990.
This is the autobiography of Adams.

Helbig, Alethea K., and Agnes Regan Perkins, Dictionary of British Children's Fiction: Books of Recognized Merit, Vol. 1: A-M, Greenwood Press, 1989.
Includes a biography of Adams.

Smith, Elliot Fremont, Review of Watership Down in New York, March 4, 1974.