and his fellows first have to come to terms with the nature of the invasion. The narrator, who writes about science, maintains a dispassionate voice, observing, reporting, and rarely judging, so the reader gets a clear record of how the Martians emerge from their cylinder, which is dug into a sandy pit. This pit is at first an amphitheater for the observers and later a trench within which the attackers prepare their weapons.

Fleeing the destruction, the narrator embarks on a zigzag odyssey through the suburbs southwest of London, an area which highlights the destructive threat of the Martians by being supposedly safest and most prosperous.

*Weybridge

*Weybridge. Prosperous Surrey town on the River Thames where the narrator witnesses the first of the Martian war machines to be destroyed by a lucky artillery shot. This victory, however, is offset by the appearance of the curate, a weak and cowardly figure who is used to represent some of the worst aspects of human character.

*London

*London. Great Britain’s capital city. The narrator’s own eyewitness account of the invasion cannot encompass the whole picture that Wells wants to present, so he interpolates the story of the narrator’s cousin in London, who is also a man of science and hence a dispassionate reporter. At first, away from the fighting and getting only confused and intermittent reports of what is happening in Surrey, the reader is given an image of a great Victorian city enjoying its wealth, power, and confidence. When reports do come through, the people initially behave well, but this confidence is quickly broken when London itself comes under attack. In the exodus from the city that then follows, kaleidoscopic scenes of panic, cruelty, greed, selfishness, and violence are presented. This image is set against that of heroism presented by the gunboat which manages to destroy two of the Martian war machines before being destroyed itself.

*Sheen

*Sheen. Suburb of London. By this stage, the comfortable little towns on the outskirts of London have become ruined and depopulated, the very image of Victorian success laid low. It is in Sheen that the narrator and the curate become trapped in the cellar of a house when a Martian cylinder lands beside them. This allows, for the first time, close and prolonged observation of the Martians, during which the reader learns, for example, that they are using captured humans for food. However, this is contrasted with the final breakdown of the relationship between the narrator and the curate, as the latter tries to gorge on their small but carefully hoarded food supply.

*Putney Hill

*Putney Hill. Suburb of London. After escaping from the ruined house, the narrator’s journey takes him on along the south bank of the Thames toward London. It is on Putney Hill, at this point a landscape not unlike Horsell Common, that he meets again with the artilleryman with whom he had escaped from Woking. The narrator’s odyssey has seen a gradual stripping away of the veneer of civilization, and the artilleryman now presents a fantasy of guerrilla warfare, of collaboration with the invaders, and of a new but far more primitive human society. It becomes clear that the artilleryman cannot even live up to the crude ideals of his new society: Victorian society, it is implied, is barely a step away from savagery. Meanwhile it is the narrator, the man of science, who is thus somewhat outside society, who goes on to London to discover the Martians killed by bacteria.

Fear of Invasion

By the late nineteenth century, European nations were divided into strategic alliances, setting the stage for potential conflict. From 1882 onwards, these military alliances led to unprecedented military buildups. This trend created a perilous political climate, culminating in the largest and bloodiest conflict the world had known up to that point, the Great War.

The seeds of this European division were sown in 1871 when Prussia defeated France. Prussia, which included Germany, aimed to prevent France from reclaiming lost territory by forming alliances with Austria-Hungary and later Russia. By the 1880s, Germany had entered into a Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary. In response, Britain, France, and Russia formed the Triple Entente, agreeing to defend each other if attacked. By the late 1890s, when Wells wrote The War of the Worlds, all European nations were aligned with one of these alliances. The balance of military power was meticulously maintained: for example, the German naval expansion in the 1890s prompted Britain to enhance its own navy, leading Italy, France, the United States, and Japan to follow suit. Thus, while the political scene appeared stable, it was anticipated to erupt into conflict.

The anticipated military conflict in Europe did not actually materialize until nearly two decades later. When it did occur, it seemed almost inevitable. The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by Serbians in 1914 triggered Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia. Within a week, Germany, France, and Russia were drawn in, followed by Belgium, Great Britain, and Japan days later. By the war's end four years later, ten million people had perished, and twenty million were wounded.

Darwinism

A significant influence on scientific thought at the end of the nineteenth century was the theory of biological evolution proposed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Darwin's theory of natural selection, suggesting that organisms evolve over generations, is a central theme in The War of the Worlds. This is evident in the depiction of Martians who have lost the need for bodies or sexual reproduction, and in the portrayal of humanity's bleak fate as perhaps regrettable but ultimately inevitable.

In 1859, Darwin presented his theories in his book On the Origin of the Species. Drawing from his observations in previously uncharted regions of the South Pacific, he concluded that similar species were indeed related and that those which developed under different conditions had evolved to better fit their unique environments. Upon its release, the book caused a sensation, and the theory of evolution began to influence other disciplines as well. This led to the emergence of concepts such as Herbert Spencer’s competitive “social darwinism,” which explained the survival of certain social traits over others. One of Wells’s instructors, T. H. Huxley, is often regarded as perhaps the most influential writer in popularizing Darwinism.

The War of the Worlds is set in England during the late 1890s. For Wells and his contemporary audience, this was a contemporary setting, and the British weapons he describes were cutting-edge technology at the time. Although iron-clad warships and cannon batteries may seem outdated to today's readers, it's important to remember that these weapons once symbolized immense destruction. The Martian war-machines' ability to crush the heavily armed British army underscores the Martians' technological superiority over humanity. Once the British artillery batteries are obliterated, no one doubts the Martians' potential to annihilate humankind.

All the locations in The War of the Worlds are real places in England—places where Wells either lived or frequently visited. Readers familiar with England would have easily recognized the place names and the descriptions of the countryside. This familiarity helps Wells convey the impact of the invasion on ordinary people.

It's also worth noting that scientific theories in the 1890s suggested Mars might be home to intelligent beings. The "canals" of Mars, now understood to be optical illusions, were taken seriously when The War of the Worlds was written. Maps of these canals had been published, and some scientists speculated openly about their construction and purpose.

Additionally, a significant scientific theory about the solar system's origins posited that the sun periodically emitted matter, creating new inner planets and causing the existing ones to move outward into new orbits. Many people speculated that if Mars were older than Earth, it might host an older civilization. Furthermore, if Mars once occupied Earth's orbit, its civilization might have developed in a warmer climate, making the Martians envious of Earth's milder weather.

Narrative

To present this story as a first-person narrative, where an "I" narrator is a character within the book, Wells employs several clever techniques. Firstly, the narrator is a scientist and a friend of the astronomer Ogilvy. This connection grants him access to the field of astronomy, especially when news about the first projectile from Mars is not widely discussed. Additionally, the narrator recounts the events from six years after they occurred, allowing him to include information, like details about the Martians' physiology, that would not have been available during the invasion.

The most apparent narrative device, however, is shifting the point of view to the narrator’s brother for several chapters. This character is not deeply explored, and readers do not gain much insight into his personality. These chapters serve to depict the general reaction to the invasion around London and perhaps introduce a heroic figure aiding those in need, all while maintaining the narrator’s perspective.

Foreshadowing

By the conclusion of The War of the Worlds, many readers realize that the Martians' defeat was foreshadowed throughout the story. Foreshadowing is a literary device where hints are given about what will happen later in the narrative. When done effectively, readers may not recognize these hints until the foreshadowed event occurs.

As early as Chapter 2 of Book 2, the narrator states:

Micro-organisms, which cause so much disease and pain on Earth, have either never appeared on Mars or Martian sanitary science eliminated them ages ago. A hundred diseases, all the fevers and contagions of human life, consumption, cancers, tumors, and such morbidities, never enter the scheme of their life.

Readers who do not recognize this as a hint about the Martians' eventual inability to survive on Earth receive further clues when the narrator introduces the red weed from Mars. Although it grew rapidly, it could not withstand the local bacteria. The ending is foreshadowed early on, but readers engrossed in the story might overlook it.

In his autobiography, Wells states, "I am journalist all the time and what I write goes now — and presently will die." He underestimated the lasting impact his work would have on readers' imaginations, but his focus on current events partly explains the success of his novels. When The War of the Worlds was written, Mars was a topic of intense public interest. About two decades earlier, astronomers had reported observing "canals" on Mars. These canals suggested the existence of intelligent life capable of building them. Additionally, science had become a hot topic of public discussion, as the 1890s marked a period when the natural sciences were increasingly being incorporated into school curriculums. Journalists tapped into this widespread interest in science and Mars with numerous speculations about what life on Mars might be like. Wells chose a subject for his novel that was designed to captivate the public’s imagination. Furthermore, he set the novel’s action in the everyday environments of his primary audience—middle-class readers. His attention to accurate details in both setting and the daily lives of his audience lends his narrative a compelling immediacy, making the action feel as though it could happen in any reader's own backyard.

Wells also asserts, "I write as I walk because I want to get somewhere and I write as straight as I can, just as I walk as straight as I can, because that is the best way to get there." The War of the Worlds features a straightforward narrative style, free of artifice; it captivates the imagination with its inventive concepts and brisk pace, mirroring the Martians' rapid advance toward London. The Narrator is a journalist who was "busy upon a series of papers discussing the probable developments of moral ideas as civilization progressed." He recounts the story with a journalist's keen eye for local color and broad appeal. Like Wells, the Narrator is interested in moral evolution and infuses his observations with ethical reflections. The narrative remains focused; the story and ideas progress seamlessly from the sighting of "incandescent gas" on Mars to the heartfelt reunion of the Narrator and his wife, who embraces her husband.

When Wells penned The War of the Worlds, science had become a hot topic of public discussion. During this era, natural sciences were increasingly being integrated into school curricula. Journalists, responding to the widespread fascination with science—particularly the interest in Mars and its potential inhabitants—produced a plethora of speculative articles. Wells selected a theme for his novel that was sure to capture the public’s imagination. Moreover, his meticulous attention to accurate details, both in the setting and in the everyday lives of his characters, lends the narrative a compelling immediacy, making it seem as though the events could unfold in any reader’s own backyard.

Wells employs an intriguing technique by using symbolic names. The Narrator could be seen as an Everyman figure—a character meant to represent all of humanity. More overtly symbolic are the Curate and the Artilleryman. These characters are not given personal names but instead serve as representatives of their respective groups. The Curate, embodying a religious perspective, struggles to reconcile the invasion of Earth by beings that defy his theological framework. The Artilleryman symbolizes the bravado and futility of the military when faced with vastly superior weaponry. Typically, an author aims to engage readers with individual characters; however, in The War of the Worlds, the collective human experience takes precedence over individual characters. This approach allows Wells to convey his insights on imperialism, technology, and social evolution. Consequently, he only slightly individualizes his characters, choosing instead to highlight their shared traits with the archetypes they represent.

The War of the Worlds serves primarily as a work of entertainment, lacking the explicit social commentary found in The Time Machine (1895). Nevertheless, it does reflect some of Wells's social concerns. Anthony West highlights that the Martians "treat Europeans as Europeans had been treating native populations and animals in the hey-day of colonialism." In this scenario, Europeans become the primitive ones. The typical English reactions of confusion, fear, panic, and bravado emerge in response to an invasion by a civilization with technology far beyond human understanding. The Martians themselves are depicted as "minds that are to our minds as ours are to those of the beasts."

Additional Commentary

In many ways, The War of the Worlds recounts a familiar story. For example, when Hernando Cortes and his men arrived in Mexico in the early sixteenth century, the Aztecs initially mistook them for benevolent gods. The Aztecs were baffled by the Spaniards' powerful horses, creatures they had never seen before. However, once they realized that Cortes's men were not "gods" but conquerors, they resisted and were ultimately defeated by vastly superior weapons. Wells's narrative of the tragedy brought about by colonialist ambitions is thus reinforced by historical events.

Wells emphasizes the notion that technological advancement does not necessarily equate to moral progress. He argues that ethics must evolve alongside humanity's capacity to alter the natural world to prevent cruelty and catastrophe. This point remains relevant even today, underscoring that superior technological skills do not inherently make someone a moral individual—a lesson that is particularly important for young adults to grasp.

1898: One of the most terrifying aspects of the Martian invasion is when they grasp the concept of flight, allowing them to extend their dominance worldwide.

Today: Humans have been capable of flight since the Wright Brothers achieved lift-off at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903.

1898: Wells depicts interplanetary travel as a canister shot from Mars to Earth like a bullet from a gun.

Today: Humanity comprehends rocket propulsion principles sufficiently to explore distant parts of our solar system.

1898: In the novel, Wells describes lakes of water on Mars, visible through telescopes.

Today: For many years, theories about water on Mars were dismissed as misinterpretations of the observable data; however, recent probes on Mars have confirmed the presence of significant amounts of water.

1898: The only means of communication are telegraphs. When the Martians are just a few miles from London, people in the city continue their daily routines, oblivious to the impending danger.

Today: Wireless phones with video capabilities enable an average person to send audio and visual information from any remote location in the world.

Much like The Time Machine, The War of the Worlds is a groundbreaking work that sets important precedents. It is the first novel to explore the concept of an "alien invasion," and every subsequent "alien invasion" story owes a debt to Wells's creation. The novel established enduring standards for the genre, featuring elements such as the strategic battle between outmatched humans and ruthless invaders, exotic alien war-machines, and heat rays. Wells's commitment to the accuracy of the novel's background details — from scientific explanations of the astronomical relationship between Earth and Mars to specific place names in the English countryside — has set a significant benchmark for later science fiction. Part of the thrill of reading The War of the Worlds lies in following Wells's creativity, witnessing a brilliant mind introduce readers to concepts they have never encountered before.

Wells authored several visionary novels akin to The War of the Worlds. These works were referred to as "scientific fantasies" since the term "science fiction" had not yet been coined. The Time Machine delves into significant social themes concerning the ethical treatment of the working class in an industrial society and also presents an apocalyptic vision of the future. The First Men in the Moon portrays terrifying extraterrestrial creatures, while The Invisible Man features a scientist whose moral compass is so misguided that he trivializes his groundbreaking discovery of invisibility. In The Island of Dr. Moreau, the pursuit of scientific knowledge comes at the expense of the brutalization of nature.

Orson Welles's 1938 radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds has achieved legendary status and has itself been the subject of numerous books and television programs. The script, written by Howard Koch, was produced and directed by Welles for CBS radio. The radio play effectively captured the novel's journalistic tone and sense of immediacy. The narrative was presented as if the events were unfolding in real-time during the broadcast. The setting was relocated from England to northeastern America, with place names familiar to most listeners. The reportorial aspect was enhanced by structuring the story as a series of interruptions to a fictitious, innocuous music program. Kenneth Delmar as the Announcer, Fred Readick as the Reporter, and Orson Welles as the Princeton University Professor performed their roles as if part of an actual "on-the-spot" newscast, supported by mystifying sound effects and a compelling musical score by the then twenty-seven-year-old Bernard Herrmann. Herrmann, a talented discovery, would go on to compose scores for numerous films, including The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and The Birds (1963).

The broadcast aired on Halloween, a time when Americans were already on edge due to ominous reports of impending war in Europe. Fred Readick mimicked the emotional tone of the reporter who had witnessed the explosion and burning of the zeppelin Hindenburg. The performances, sound effects, accurate setting, and public mood all contributed to widespread belief in the broadcast's authenticity. Despite several disclaimers throughout the program stating that The War of the Worlds was merely a show, panic ensued. Even after the sixty-minute program concluded, people fled in their cars, crowding roadways, while others fled on foot from the supposed Martian landing site. Rumors exaggerated the extent of the imaginary devastation, with claims that the U.S. Army was either annihilated or in retreat. Police across the eastern United States worked tirelessly to restore order and clear the roads. Orson Welles reveled in the attention, whereas H. G. Wells was reportedly displeased with the "liberties" taken with his novel.

In 1953, the highly acclaimed film "War of the Worlds" premiered. Set in the Los Angeles area, it was produced for Paramount by George Pal. The movie boasts sharp direction by Byron Haskins and a succinct screenplay by Barre Lyndon. This eighty-three-minute color spectacle won an Academy Award for its special effects.

Gene Barry stars as Clayton Forrester, the protagonist, supported by a talented cast including Ann Robinson as the love interest Sylvia Van Buren and Les Tremayne as General Mann. Despite being a somewhat frivolous film that exaggerates the Martians' invincibility, it captivates audiences with George Barnes' striking cinematography and impressive special effects.

All the major plot elements from the novel are present, although the Martian war machines are depicted as flying rather than walking. Many critics consider it one of the top ten science-fiction films ever made.

An audiocassette edition of Wells’s The War of the Worlds can be obtained from Books in Motion, which was released in 1982.

The 1938 radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds by Orson Welles’s Mercury Theatre on the Air is undoubtedly the most renowned. It has become a significant part of American history due to the widespread panic it caused when broadcast nationwide.

In 1953, producer George Pal loosely adapted The War of the Worlds into a film starring Gene Barry and Ann Robinson. This adaptation earned the Academy Award for Best Special Effects. It is available on VHS and DVD through Paramount.

In 1978, a stage musical version of the story was produced in London. Jeff Wayne’s Musical Version of the “War of the Worlds” featured Richard Burton and included songs by David Essex, along with musicians from The Moody Blues and Thin Lizzy. The soundtrack album achieved multiplatinum status and is available from CBS Records.

Asimov, Isaac. "The Science Fiction Breakthrough." In Asimov on Science Fiction. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981. Asimov argues that Wells revolutionized science fiction by concentrating on the implications of scientific progress. Special focus is given to The Time Machine, The Invisible Man, and The War of the Worlds.

Beetz, Kirk H. "H. G. Wells." In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. This text provides a comprehensive overview of both biographical and autobiographical sources on Wells, as well as a review of major critical studies of his works.

Dickson, Lovat. H. G. Wells: His Turbulent Life and Times. New York: Atheneum, 1969. A concise and insightful biography.

Gunn, James. "Prophet of Progress: 1866-1946." In Alternate Worlds: The Illustrated History of Science Fiction. New York: A & W Visual Library, 1975. This work summarizes Wells's significance in the realm of science fiction.

Haynes, Rosalynn D. H. G. Wells, Discoverer of the Future: The Influence on His Thought. New York: New York University Press, 1980. An in-depth analysis of how Wells integrated his scientific perspectives into his fiction.

Mackenzie, Norman, and Jeanne Mackenzie. H. G. Wells: A Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973. The most comprehensive biography, focusing on Wells's professional life.

Parrinder, Patrick, ed. H. G. Wells: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972. An anthology of critical essays.

Wells, H. G. Experiment in Autobiography: Discoveries and Conclusions of a Very Ordinary Brain (Since 1866). New York: Macmillan, 1934. The intellectual journey of Wells, filled with humor, indignation, and insight.

Williamson, Jack. H. G. Wells: Critic of Progress. Baltimore: Mirage, 1973. An excellent critical introduction to Wells's literary achievements and the primary themes in his work.

Sources

Costa, Richard Hauer, H. G. Wells, Twayne’s English Author Series, No. 43, Twayne Publishers, 1967, p. 42.

Review, in Academy, January 29, 1898, pp. 121–22.

Review, in Critic, April 23, 1898, p. 282.

St. Loe Strachey, John, Review, in the Spectator, Vol. LXXX, January 20, 1898, pp. 168–69.

Wells, H. G., War of the Worlds, Harper & Brothers, 1898. Williams, Basil, Review, in Athenaeum, February 3, 1898, p. 178.

Further Reading

Bergonzi, Bernard, The Early H. G. Wells: A Study of the Scientific Romances, University of Toronto Press, 1961. Wells underwent significant changes after the turn of the twentieth century. By focusing on his early works, Bergonzi provides an in-depth analysis of Wells's developing style.

Haynes, Roslynn D., H. G. Wells: Discoverer of the Future, New York University Press, 1980. Haynes explores the impact of scientific advancements on Wells’s thinking, detailing the scientific progress of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Hillegas, Mark R., The Future as Nightmare: H. G. Wells and the Anti-Utopians, Southern Illinois University Press, 1967. This book primarily focuses on Wells but also connects his work to other authors who have expressed concerns about the future, such as George Orwell (1984) and Aldous Huxley (Brave New World).

Huntington, John, “The Logical Web,” in The Logic of Fantasy: H. G. Wells and Science Fiction, Columbia University Press, 1982, pp. 57–84. Huntington analyzes Wells's novels as a representation of his intellectual ideas, using The War of the Worlds to illustrate his main argument.