W. B. Yeats
William Butler Yeats stands as a towering figure in twentieth-century literature, not only as a major poet but also as a pivotal influence in the cultural and political landscape of modern Ireland. His prolific output as a poet, critic, playwright, and fiction writer, alongside his efforts to establish an Irish theater and revive national mythology, cemented his role as a significant public presence in Ireland. R. F. Foster’s biography of Yeats presents a detailed, chronological exploration of the poet’s first fifty years, emphasizing Yeats’s impact on Irish society rather than solely focusing on his literary works.
Early Life and Influences
William Butler Yeats was born on June 13, 1865, in a Dublin suburb. His father, John Butler Yeats, was a barrister who favored the arts over legal practice, leading to periods of financial hardship for the family. Despite these challenges, William spent considerable time in Sligo, in western Ireland, with his mother's family, where the Pollexfens provided a more stable and affluent environment.
Yeats's education was eclectic; he was disinterested in formal schooling and found art school uninspiring. His father, who was a better teacher, instilled in him an appreciation for literature by reading works from authors like Honoré de Balzac and Charles Dickens aloud. William’s extensive reading at the British Museum and Dublin’s National Library further fueled his interests in English poetry, Irish folklore, mythology, and occult literature.
Literary and Social Circles
Throughout his life, Yeats maintained strong connections with literary circles in London and Ireland. He mingled with notable figures such as Padraic Colum, James Joyce, and George Bernard Shaw, forming relationships that would shape his creative and personal endeavors. His summers at Coole Park, the home of Lady Augusta Gregory, served as a retreat where he could focus on his writing.
Yeats thrived on social interaction, which fed his creative pursuits, although these activities often led to conflicts and controversies. His diverse social engagements filled the gaps left by his sporadic formal education, and his acquaintances across literary and artistic communities significantly influenced his work.
Spiritual and Mystical Pursuits
Born into a Protestant family, Yeats was drawn to the mystical rather than conventional Christianity. His fascination with Neoplatonism, theosophy, and spiritualism was apparent in both his life and work. He participated in séances and was involved in groups like the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which pursued theosophical teachings and other spiritual explorations.
These spiritual pursuits not only fulfilled Yeats’s personal needs but also fed into his artistic and nationalist ambitions, inspiring works that highlighted Ireland’s heroic past and mythologies. His involvement in such movements also paralleled his engagement with the Irish nationalist movement.
Women in Yeats’s Life
Women played crucial roles in Yeats’s intellectual and emotional development. His first significant female influence was Laura Armstrong, a cousin with whom he corresponded in his youth. His relationships with women such as Olivia Shakespear, Annie Horniman, and Maud Gonne further shaped his personal and professional life.
Olivia Shakespear, a novelist, became his lover in 1895, fostering both a personal and intellectual connection. Annie Horniman, an enthusiastic supporter of Yeats's theatrical ambitions, contributed financially to his projects but also created tensions within the theater movement due to her assertive involvement.
Maud Gonne, an actress and fervent nationalist, was arguably the most profound influence on Yeats. Despite an unrequited romantic interest, her presence and nationalist fervor inspired much of his work. Their relationship remained complex, deeply affecting Yeats’s poetry and theater work.
The Irish Theater Movement
Yeats’s determination to establish an Irish theater began with the foundation of the Celtic Theatre, later the Irish Literary Theatre, in 1897. Alongside...
(This entire section contains 986 words.)
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Lady Gregory and others, he sought to present plays that celebrated Irish themes and narratives. Despite initial successes, the venture faced challenges, leading to its dissolution in 1901.
In 1902, Yeats’s collaboration with Frank and William Fay’s Irish National Dramatic Society marked a new chapter. The society’s productions at St. Teresa’s Hall in Dublin, including Yeats’s Cathleen ni Houlihan, revitalized interest in Irish drama. The establishment of the Abbey Theatre in 1904, with Yeats, Lady Gregory, and John Millington Synge at the helm, solidified his vision for a national theater.
The Abbey Theatre’s opening and subsequent tours symbolized a triumph for Yeats’s cultural aspirations. However, internal conflicts and public controversies, such as the reaction to Synge’s The Playboy of the Western World, highlighted the ongoing tensions between artistic freedom and socio-cultural conservatism.
Recognition and Later Life
The period following the establishment of the Abbey Theatre marked Yeats’s transition from apprentice to master. The publication of his Collected Works in 1908 underscored his literary stature, as did the Civil List pension, which offered financial security and official recognition.
In the years leading up to his fiftieth birthday, Yeats increasingly used his work as a platform for political expression, reflecting the broader national struggle for Irish independence. His poetry from this time, such as “September 1913,” captured the tensions and aspirations of the era.
R. F. Foster’s biography provides a meticulous account of these formative years, offering insights into Yeats’s development as a poet and public figure. While not an analysis of his literary works, the biography serves as an essential resource for understanding the context of Yeats’s life and times.
Further Reading
- America. CLXXVII, August 30, 1997, p. 27.
- Choice. XXXV, October, 1997, p. 296.
- Commentary 117, no. 2 (February, 2004): 64.
- Harper's Magazine 307, no. 1843 (December, 2003): 95.
- Kirkus Reviews 71, no. 16 (August 15, 2003): 1077.
- Los Angeles Times. May 9, 1997, p. E3.
- The Nation. CCLXIV, May 12, 1997, p. 51.
- New Criterion 22, no. 9 (May, 2004): 70.
- The New Leader 86, no. 5 (September/October, 2003): 36.
- The New York Review of Books 51, no. 3 (February 26, 2004): 12.
- The New York Times, December 4, 2003, p. E8.
- The New York Times Book Review. CII, April 6, 1997, p. 10.
- Publishers Weekly 250, no. 37 (September 15, 2003): 52.
- Publishers Weekly. CCXLIV, March 3, 1997, p. 55.
- The Sewanee Review. CV, Spring, 1997, p. 251.
- The Times Literary Supplement. April 11, 1997, p. 21.
- The Wall Street Journal. April 23, 1997, p. A16.
- The Washington Post Book World. XXVII, April 20, 1997, p. 6.
W. B. Yeats
The life of William Butler Yeats, one of Ireland's foremost poets, is intricately detailed in R. F. Foster's biography, "W. B. Yeats: A Life." The first volume, "The Apprentice Mage, 1865-1914," paints a picture of Yeats as a young man, while the continuation focuses on his mature years, handling both the literary and mystical aspects of his life. Foster's work showcases Yeats’s public persona and private explorations, capturing the poet's complex relationship with Ireland and his gradual drift towards mysticism.
The Public and Private Yeats
As Yeats transitioned into the public eye, his roles included senator in the Irish Free State parliament and Nobel laureate. These positions made his work not only a reflection of personal expression but also an instrument for public messaging. Yeats's life was a paradox; a Protestant in Catholic Ireland, he was a nationalist yet wary of the fervor of those around him. Although he cherished Ireland's culture, he spent substantial time abroad and rejected traditional Christianity in favor of mysticism.
A More Introspective Poet
Yeats's poetry evolved as he aged, becoming more introspective and often elegiac. This shift began as he entered his sixth decade, focusing on personal reflections. During this period, he was deeply engaged with cultural and political tensions in Ireland, and despite some financial stability through his marriage to Georgie Hyde Lees, he continued to face monetary challenges due to familial obligations.
Marriage and Mysticism
In 1917, Yeats married George, who became his partner in both life and mystical explorations. Their marriage was marked by a shared interest in the occult, with George's engagement in automatic writing significantly influencing Yeats's work. The union brought a level of peace to Yeats's life, inspiring works like "A Prayer for My Daughter" and increasing his literary output, as evidenced by the publication of "Michael Robartes and the Dancer."
The Impact of Politics
The political landscape of Ireland deeply affected Yeats. The ratification of the Anglo-Irish treaty and the establishment of the Free State were pivotal, drawing Yeats back to Ireland. These events inspired his poetic sequence "Meditations in Time of Civil War" and led to his appointment in the Irish Senate. His support for the Free State was tempered by its increasingly authoritarian tendencies.
Nobel Laureate and National Issues
Winning the Nobel Prize in 1923 provided Yeats with a broader platform to advocate for the recognition of the Abbey Theatre as a national institution. He vigorously opposed government censorship and was a vocal participant in debates about the official status of the Gaelic language and the divorce issue. These stands often left him isolated politically, as he diverged from both Senate colleagues and the prevailing public opinion.
Health, Creativity, and Controversy
Throughout the 1920s, Yeats dealt with health issues that required him to retreat from public life temporarily. Despite this, he completed "A Vision," a spiritual autobiography, and produced significant works such as "Leda and the Swan" and "Among School Children." His productivity was undeterred by personal and political upheavals around him.
Engagement with Fascism
In the 1930s, Yeats's flirtation with fascism emerged from a creative stasis rather than political alignment. Foster describes this as a rhetorical style choice rather than a sincere ideological commitment. Yeats sought new stimuli for his work, exploring themes that would reinvigorate his creative energies.
Enduring Legacy
In his later years, Yeats was concerned with preserving his legacy, as seen through his efforts to compile "Collected Poems" and "Collected Plays." The 1933 release of his "Collected Poems" and the publication of his earlier journalism in "Letters to a New Island" reflected this preoccupation. Even personal rejuvenations—literal and metaphorical—were avenues for Yeats to maintain his creative momentum.
Final Years and Posthumous Influence
Yeats's later years continued to be marked by prolific creative output despite declining health. His seventy-fifth birthday was celebrated with accolades, yet his attention was increasingly on creative and legacy concerns rather than the looming war in Europe. Yeats passed away in 1939, and his influence on Irish consciousness and literature was not only sustained but grew after his death.
Foster's biography of Yeats proves to be more than a mere chronicle of the poet’s life; it is an exploration of the milieu that shaped his work and the intellectual currents that he navigated. Through Foster’s narrative, Yeats stands out not just as a poet of exceptional talent but as a towering figure who shaped the cultural consciousness of his country.
