Places Discussed
Volpone’s house
Volpone’s house (vohl-POH-nay). Home of the Venetian magnifico, whose name means “fox.” With an outer gallery or waiting room for dupes and a dazzling treasure cache, piles of gold, plate, and jewels hidden behind the rear-stage curtain, Volpone’s house is a handy location for storing the rich gifts of solicitous visitors. When guests are present, the drawn curtains hide this shrine to wealth, and the foxlike Volpone stretches out on his sickbed in gown, furs, and nightcap, as his servant, Mosca, ushers in the assorted base creatures.
Hiding places are important to this set, for Bonario must observe Volpone’s revelation of ardent passion unseen, just as Voltore must overhear Mosca and Corbaccio. Curtains close around Volpone on his couch as Mosca at a desk inventories the supposed inheritance of hopefuls.
Corvino’s house
Corvino’s house (kohr-VEE-noh). Home of a Venetian merchant, near St. Mark’s Place. The location attracts pickpockets, con artists, and schemers of every stripe. Corvino’s wife Cecelia looks down from a balcony, which opens into a room in Corvino’s house where he chides her. In front of the house, Mosca and a servant erect a stage for a medicine vendor to display his wares, and a disguised Volpone mounts the platform and haggles over high-priced quackery.
Historical Context
The period from 1576 to 1642 is often referred to as the Golden Age of English drama, though it was likely far from golden for those living through it. For over a century, enclosure acts had driven farmers off their land, converting agricultural fields into pastures and causing significant unemployment in rural areas, coupled with rampant inflation. By the time Elizabeth I ascended the throne in 1558, England had been rocked by crop failures, threats of foreign wars, and intense religious conflicts. Elizabeth's reign brought a measure of stability, but her failure to designate a successor brewed discontent and the potential for civil war even before her death. When James I took the throne in 1603, he was initially welcomed with enthusiasm, but soon religious, class, and political tensions escalated. Despite—or perhaps because of—this upheaval, some of the most significant drama in Western history emerged during this era.
Rural unemployment pushed many people to London, making it the largest city in Europe. However, efforts to maintain civil order often led to widespread disorder and the rise of a capitalistic economy, replacing the feudal agrarian social structure. Writers of this time explored new ideas about science, philosophy, religion, and politics, and there was also a newfound emphasis on individual thought, action, and responsibility.
Playwrights considered themselves poets, but were not seen as serious artists, much like how screenwriters are viewed today. They produced commercial works, and once sold, plays became the property of acting companies. When published, plays were more likely to feature the company’s name rather than the playwright's. It wasn't until the seventeenth century, with Jonson publishing his plays in 1616 and the folio of Shakespeare's works in 1623, that plays began to be recognized for their literary value. However, because plays were not initially regarded as serious literature, playwrights had the freedom to explore any topic that interested them.
In 1576, the first permanent theatre was constructed, elevating the social status of theatre practitioners. The theatre was built outside of town due to religious objections. Puritans believed actors were immoral and sinful, as the playhouse environment was often loose and libertine. They also argued philosophically that acting was a form of lying and role-playing. Despite these issues, plays attracted large audiences, which in turn increased crime and disease, leading city...
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officials to support the Puritans' desire to keep theatres outside city limits. Theatres also drew people away from their jobs, negatively impacting trade.
Every script required approval from the Master of Revels, who had the authority to demand revisions and impose censorship. The primary concerns were related to religion and politics rather than sexual content. Religious theology significantly influenced politics at the time. Any subject matter that might offend the queen, such as the abdication scene in William Shakespeare's Richard II, or encourage treason, was strictly prohibited. Some plays faced closure or were never performed due to such transgressions. Despite this official censorship, both the court and the queen, and later the king, were ardent supporters of the theatre. Actors, who could be arrested as vagrants, relied on the protection and patronage of the court. The theatre's influence was widespread because it reached even the illiterate. The audience was predominantly upper-class. Since there was no artificial lighting, performances were held in the afternoon, making it difficult for working people to attend. However, gentlemen were regular attendees, and for a penny (one pence), others could stand in front of the stage to watch. Respectable women could attend if accompanied by a male, but prostitutes also frequented the theatre to attract clients. Despite numerous challenges, such as open-air venues and unpredictable English weather, stage presentations and performances managed to captivate audiences, regardless of their lack of classical education. Although education was becoming more widespread, it was still limited. Nevertheless, even with minimal education, audiences could appreciate and enjoy the themes and emotions of the plays.
Literary Style
Act
A primary division in a drama. In ancient Greek plays, these sections were marked by the appearance of the chorus and typically divided into five acts. This structure was common in serious drama, from Greek and Roman plays to those of Elizabethan playwrights like William Shakespeare. The five acts often represent the stages of dramatic action: exposition, complication, climax, falling action, and catastrophe. This format persisted until the nineteenth century when Henrik Ibsen began merging some acts. Volpone follows the five-act structure. The first act provides the exposition, introducing Volpone's scheme and his victims. By the end of Act II, the complication arises as Mosca elaborates on Volpone's plans and Celia becomes central to the impending climax. The climax unfolds in Act III when Celia arrives, is assaulted by Volpone, and then rescued by Bonario. The trial that follows serves as the falling action, leading to the catastrophe in the final act where the scheming unravels and punishments are meted out.
Character
A character is an individual in a dramatic work. The story is driven by the actions of these characters. The term can also refer to a person's moral qualities. Characters can range from simple stereotypes to complex, multi-dimensional figures. They may also be defined by specific traits, like the rogue or the damsel in distress. "Characterization" is the process by which an author creates a realistic person from their imagination. This is achieved by providing the character with distinctive traits that define their behavior and personality in various situations. The characters in Volpone are largely stereotypes, lacking detailed individualization and appearing more as types. For example, Voltore is portrayed as a dishonest lawyer, embodying common stereotypes associated with the profession.
Genre
Genres are categories that classify literature. The term "genre" is French for "kind" or "type." It can refer to broad categories like tragedy, comedy, epic, poetry, or pastoral, as well as modern forms such as novels or short stories. Genres also encompass specific types of literature, such as mystery, science fiction, comedy, or romance. Volpone is categorized as a comedy.
Setting
The setting of a play includes the time, place, and cultural context in which the action occurs. Elements of the setting may involve geographic location, physical or mental environments, prevailing cultural attitudes, or the historical period of the action. Jonson's play is set in Venice, a choice that signals to the audience that the play will address themes of vice. In the context of English thought at the time, Venice was seen as a hub of depravity. The events of the play unfold over the course of a single day.
Compare and Contrast
1605: The Gunpowder Plot is uncovered. This scheme aimed to blow up the House of Parliament. The plot is linked to Roman Catholics, reminding the English of the perceived threat posed by Catholics and the Italian Pope’s influence in their country.
Today: Terrorism remains a part of British life, with random bombings being a primary tactic of the Irish Republican Army’s warfare.
1605: Tobacco, introduced to England in the late sixteenth century, was recently criticized in a pamphlet by James I, who described the habit as dirty and unhealthy. However, by 1612, he changes his stance as the Virginia tobacco trade brings significant wealth to his treasury. The lure of wealth often overshadows honor and duty.
Today: Tobacco remains a highly controversial topic. While the United States government pursues settlements with tobacco companies, it also collects substantial revenue from tobacco taxes, which are used to subsidize tobacco growers.
1605: England’s forests have been heavily depleted for several years, leading to rising wood import prices. This contributes to inflation, economic hardship, and unrest among peasants.
Today: The queen faces growing pressure to reduce her expenses and the cost of maintaining the royal presence. In response, she has agreed to pay taxes and cover many expenses previously funded by public taxation.
1605: The plague continues to claim lives in England, although the death toll is less severe than two years prior. The reoccurrence of the plague is largely due to the overcrowding and poverty in London, caused by peasants being forced from the countryside into the city.
Today: While the plague still poses a threat, its impact is smaller. A more significant concern is the spread of HIV, which continues to infect many new individuals each year despite promising treatments.
1605: The English persist in their exploration of the Americas. Explorer George Waymouth lands off the coast of North America, naming the area Nanticut.
Today: After nearly three centuries of colonization, the English have shifted their focus from discovering and colonizing new lands to addressing social issues within their own country.
Media Adaptations
Industrial Cinematográfica created a Spanish adaptation of Volpone, titled Tiburón, in 1933. The movie is distributed by Empressa (USA).
Ile de France Films produced a rendition of Volpone in 1940. This film has been distributed in France by A. Z. Distribution.
United Artists released a version of Volpone called The Honey Pot in 1967.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Ford, Boris, ed., Seventeenth-Century Britain, Vol. 4, The Cambridge
Cultural History of Britain, (Series), Cambridge, 1989.
This book offers a straightforward understanding of England's history in the
seventeenth century. It is organized into distinct sections covering
literature, art, and music. An introductory part provides the necessary
historical background.
Herford, C. H., Percy Simpson, and Evelyn Simpson, eds., Ben Jonson,
Oxford, 1925-1952.
This eleven-volume set includes a biography of Jonson and introductions to each
of his plays. The plays' texts are reprinted from the 1616 folio that Jonson
originally published. Additionally, it contains information about the public's
reception of the plays and extensive details on nearly every aspect of Jonson's
life and work.
Hill, Christopher, The Century of Revolution 1603-1714, Norton,
1961.
Hill, a renowned author specializing in the cultural and historical context of
English Renaissance literature, provides a well-organized analysis of the
economic, religious, and political issues of the seventeenth century. The book
delves into the events leading up to the English Revolution, the Revolution
itself, and the subsequent Restoration, which were pivotal in shaping the
literature of this and later periods.
Hirsh, James E., ed., New Perspectives on Ben Jonson, Fairleigh
Dickinson University Press, 1997.
Hirsh has curated a collection of essays on Jonson's work, showcasing many
contemporary scholarly approaches to analyzing his texts.
Kay, David W., Ben Jonson: A Literary Life, St. Martin's Press,
1995.
Kay presents a concise biography of Jonson, exploring the influences of his
early life, his court presence, and his relationships with other Renaissance
playwrights.
Maclean, Hugh, ed., Ben Jonson and the Cavalier Poets, Norton,
1974.
This text offers a substantial selection of Jonson's poetry. It also includes
works by Jonson's contemporaries, providing readers with an accessible way to
study and compare the poetry of the period.
Sanders, Julie, ed., Refashioning Ben Jonson: Gender Politics and the
Jonsonian Canon, St. Martin's Press, 1998.
This book features a collection of essays by scholars examining Jonson's work
within its historical and political context.