seems to fear his attention. When she finally realizes that he cares for her and she for him, it is too late for the traditional happy ending.

The final pages of the novel offer an unusual twist. In most works of this genre, the heroine is united with the man she adores. In Villette, however, Lucy ends up separated from Paul Emmanuel. Although he sets her up as a schoolmistress in her own school, he departs for the West Indies and does not return; there is a suggestion that he has died. Lucy goes on with her life, however, and since she reveals at one point that she is now a white-haired lady telling a story of long ago, readers realize that she has been, for years, independent of both male and female benefactors.

Villette

Villette. Capital city of the fictional country of Labassecour. With a name that literally means “little city,” Villette is not large; students walk out to the surrounding countryside before breakfast from the city center. The city is divided into two main parts: the Basse-Ville, the lower city, and the Haute-Ville, the upper city. The lower city contains the older, run-down areas. Here Dr. John goes on his philanthropic medical visits, and here is situated the rue des Mages, on which the house of Madame Walravens and other dependents of Monsieur Paul stands.

The upper city is the fashionable area in which the royal palaces, galleries, museums, and society meeting places are located. In one of the art galleries, the exhibition of a painting occasions an argument between Lucy and Monsieur Paul. At one of the theaters, she attends a concert also attended by the king and queen. Later, she spends the night enjoying a festival of lights and fireworks. It would be true to say that Lucy belongs to neither of these worlds, low or high.

Bretton

Bretton. Old cathedral town in England. Lucy’s godmother’s family have lived here on St. Ann’s Street for generations; in fact, her family name is also Bretton. Her son, John Graham, lives there with her. On one of Lucy’s visits she meets Polly Home, a little girl.

Lucy’s home

Lucy’s home. Situated fifty miles north of London, the place is never named or described. After her parents’ death, she lives in the same place as companion to Miss Marchmont, an invalid. “Two hot rooms” become Lucy’s world for a while until Miss Marchmont’s death. Almost destitute, Lucy feels guided to go to London. There, Lucy stays near St. Paul’s Cathedral and is captivated by the energy of London, the commercial and financial center of Great Britain. It emboldens her to sail for Europe.

Pensionnat de Demoiselles

Pensionnat de Demoiselles (pan-see-OHN-ah deh deh-MWAH-zay). Girls’ school run by Madame Beck on the rue Fossette, five minutes walk from Villette’s city center. On Lucy’s nighttime arrival in Villette, she providentially stumbles straight to it and is offered a place there, first as governess to Madame Beck’s children, then as one of four regular teachers. The school consists of a former convent plus some extensions, large enough for twenty boarders, the teachers, six servants, and Madame Beck’s family. There are also one hundred day students. Madame Beck knows everything that goes on at the school, a picture similar to the girls’ school portrayed in Brontë’s first novel, The Professor (1857). The discipline is not too strict, and there is plenty of food and exercise in the large garden, in contrast to the Lowood School of her second novel, Jane Eyre (1847). There is a neighboring boys’ school, as in The Professor, where Monsieur Paul also teaches.

La Terrasse

La Terrasse (lah teh-RAHS). Villette House leased by Lucy’s godmother, to which Lucy is taken in a state of nervous collapse by the school’s physician, Dr. John, who turns out to be Graham Bretton. It is a small country house just outside the city limits, a mile or so from the Porte de Crécy. The interior is done in English fashion with many paintings and furnishings from the house in Bretton. Lucy stays there until fully recovered and then visits for a while.

Hôtel Crécy

Hôtel Crécy (oh-TEL KRAY-see). Grand hotel on the rue Crécy where Count de Bassompierre has his apartments on the second floor. De Bassompierre turns out to be Polly’s father, now elevated through marriage to the country’s aristocracy. He has also inherited Ginevra as his niece, thus completing the English network of friends that Lucy finally rejects in favor of Monsieur Paul.

Faubourg Clotilde

Faubourg Clotilde (FOH-bur kloh-TEELD). Monsieur Paul rents a space to enable Lucy to start her own little school. At the end of the novel she is also able to rent the house next door as a “pensionnat” or boarding facility for the school.

Brontë is frequently celebrated as one of the earliest feminist novelists; her works express discontent, sometimes even anger, with the patriarchal society that limited the possibilities for both economic advancement and personal fulfillment for women. Many critics have viewed Lucy Snowe in Villette as a feminist heroine refusing to succumb to the expectations of society, rejecting the traditional route for achieving social acceptance through marriage. Her decision at the end of the novel to reject Paul Emmanuel and remain single is touted as a courageous act of defiance against custom.

Reception to Villette by Brontë’s contemporaries was decidedly mixed; even some women reviewers criticized her for creating a heroine who did not conform to the expectations of the reading public, which was accustomed to having romances end with a happy marriage. The author’s choice of a plain heroine who remains guarded in her relationships—even with readers—was disturbing for some. Nineteenth century critics who praised the novel, and many writing in the first decades of the following century, qualified their enthusiasm by focusing first on the fact that the novel was written by a woman rather than on Brontë’s accomplishments in creating complex characters or pursuing an important social and political theme.

Scholars writing later in the twentieth century, especially feminist critics, have judged the novel Brontë’s finest work. They applaud her for creating a complex, independent central character who is willing to challenge preconceptions about the role of women and to examine her own social and psychological circumstances honestly and directly. Feminists have embraced all Brontë’s works, seeing beneath the conventional surface of her romances a strong, critical voice attacking the social conventions that circumscribed opportunities for women. Although they have not ignored the autobiographical genesis of much of her work, they have noted her special genius as an observer and chronicler of the plight of women in a society that was decidedly male dominated.

The main criticism directed at Villette is its heavy reliance on coincidence, which some scholars argue undermines the plot's credibility. Many readers find it implausible that Lucy, upon arriving in France, would encounter John Bretton, whom she knew as a child, and then also meet Ginevra Fanshawe and Polly Home, now Paulina Mary de Bassompierre. Essentially, all the significant characters Lucy knew at fourteen are reunited in Villette. This narrative choice creates a somewhat circular plot but stretches believability.

Similar to Jane Eyre (1847; see separate entry), with which Villette is often compared, the author uses the first-person perspective of a young woman (initially a girl) who extensively narrates her activities, thoughts, and emotions. As a result, Villette is a highly subjective novel, in contrast to Shirley (1849; see separate entry). This method is effective in this psychological study, as readers need to delve into Lucy Snowe's mind to understand her motivations and experiences.

The foreign setting and characters are drawn from Bronte's personal experiences. Mme. Beck's school closely mirrors the Pensionnat Heger, where Charlotte once worked. M. Emanuel Paul is modeled on Constantin Heger, and Mme. Beck on Madame Heger. As was her habit, Bronte based several other characters on real individuals: John Graham Bretton and his mother are inspired by George Smith (of Charlotte's publishing house, Smith, Elder) and his mother—Smith identified the "portrait" and was quite pleased with it. Additionally, Ginevra Fanshawe is based on a girl Charlotte knew in Brussels.

Even the most significant event in the plot might have been inspired by a real-life experience. The brother of Charlotte's friend Mary Taylor had proposed to Charlotte and then traveled to India for five years, leaving Bronte uncertain about his return. These events likely influenced the proposal, departure, and uncertain return of Emanuel Paul (whom Charlotte believed to be lost at sea). Thus, Charlotte Bronte drew heavily from her own experiences to create the characters and events that shape this long and moving story.

It would be beneficial to examine Charlotte Bronte's experiences in Belgium (as well as some of the letters she wrote to M. Heger) and compare them with the characters and events in Villette. Consideration should also be given to the coincidental aspects of the plot—do they undermine the story, or do they contribute to a sense of completeness and authenticity? Investigating the real-life individuals who inspired the main characters in Villette could also be insightful. Moreover, exploring existential philosophy principles might be worthwhile to determine if Lucy can indeed be seen as an existentialist character, as Sartre suggests that individuals define themselves through their choices.

1. Do the French passages interrupt the enjoyment of the text, or do they add a layer of realism that enhances the artistic impact?

2. Can Lucy Snowe genuinely be considered neurotic? For instance, does her "vision" of the nun, which is ultimately revealed to be de Hamal in disguise, indicate a troubled mind?

3. Are the coincidences and dramatic events (e.g., Lucy traveling alone to a foreign country with little money and no prospects) too contrived to be believable?

4. Does the lack of detailed background on Lucy's early years create a gap in understanding her later actions, thoughts, and feelings? Should Bronte have extended the novel to include more information about Lucy's parentage and childhood?

5. Which male character is more intricately developed, John Bretton or Emanuel Paul? Which one is more substantial and well-rounded?

6. Is it accurate to say that Lucy is the architect of her own misfortunes? Does her pessimistic outlook contribute to the troubles she faces? Is this negative tone overly emphasized by the author? Does the book leave the reader with an excessively depressing impression, as some nineteenth-century critics believed?

7. Does Ginevra Fanshawe serve as a foil to Lucy? Is Dr. John's infatuation with her convincingly motivated, or does it seem inappropriate?

8. It has been claimed that Bronte's writing style in this book is direct and straightforward. Considering the period in which it was written, does this assertion hold true, given the lengthy sentences, verbose clauses, and poetic language? Would the novel be improved with a simpler, more straightforward style?

This novel, the darkest and most melancholy of Charlotte Bronte's works, revisits the theme of women's subjugation by society. Although there is no explicit statement of the issue, the subjective experiences of the protagonist, Lucy Snowe (whom many contemporary readers might consider a non- or anti-heroine), starkly highlight the belief that women are deemed inferior to men and should behave accordingly. Lucy is financially strained, has no family to rely on, and lacks physical attractiveness (some readers even argue she has no charm at all). She must strive to "get along" under these conditions, fully aware that she cannot expect any assistance from societal institutions.

In Villette, the oppression of women is depicted more intensely than in Bronte's earlier works. The novel is primarily set in a Catholic country, and most major characters (except Lucy) are Catholic. The Church's doctrines regarding women's roles in society worsen Lucy's already humble circumstances. Even the man she eventually loves, Emanuel Paul, "believed in his soul that lovely, placid, and passive feminine mediocrity was the only pillow on which manly thought and sense could find rest for its aching temples; and as to work, male minds alone could work to any practical result." This perspective encapsulates the obstacles faced by Lucy and the somewhat self-effacing Polly (later Paulina) Home. Unlike Jane Eyre, Lucy in Villette is almost universally unsuccessful.

Many critics argue that Lucy's failures are largely (or entirely) her own fault. However, this does not change the fact that, had she been a man, she would have received more respect and opportunities. This attribution of blame by many readers ties into another concern that is notably modern. Most contemporary critics view Lucy as mentally and emotionally disturbed. The characters' reactions to her bouts of depression, fears of hallucinations, and generally erratic behavior reveal a profound ignorance of such issues—even Dr. John, an otherwise competent physician, believes her problems are primarily physical (though he does acknowledge "nerves" are involved). Since Lucy accepts her condition as a fundamental part of her "philosophy," to the extent that she has one, the reader may understand society's lack of comprehension. Lucy has learned to live with her "problem," and so do others.

Much like Jane Eyre, the concept of a woman narrating the trials and emotions of her past has a rich history. One of the earliest and most popular examples is Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe, published in 1722. This theme of a largely powerless woman navigating a harsh world became a recurring motif for writers in both England and France. An example from France is Zola's Nana (1880).

Two subsequent female novelists who addressed women's societal issues were Fanny Burney with Evelina (1778) and, more significantly, Jane Austen. Austen's Mansfield Park (1814) features her only truly impoverished heroine, Fanny Price, who must work and endure difficult conditions. Despite her challenges, Fanny is a well-rounded and determined character, as much as her situation allows. Bronte's female characters reflect similar qualities.

For additional insights, please refer to the section on Jane Eyre in the entry.

Jane Eyre serves as a companion volume, reflecting experiences Charlotte Bronte encountered during her early years in England. On the other hand, Villette draws from her later experiences in Belgium. These two novels are frequently compared: the generally optimistic tone of Jane Eyre is often perceived as quite distinct from the more somber mood of Villette.

While Jane Eyre remains significantly more popular than Villette, many contemporary scholars consider the latter to be more profound and fulfilling from a literary perspective.