Historical Context
The early 1920s marked a period of significant transformation for the United States. Although World War I concluded in 1919, its effects lingered. During the postwar period, much of the American population felt restless. After enduring the war's hardships, many in society sought an escape. The nation, disillusioned by the war's devastation, began to challenge traditional values and beliefs. The rigid Victorian ideals of decorum and etiquette started to fade, giving way to a new sense of "modernity" that was less restrictive. Attitudes toward sexuality became more open, leading to a decline in traditional family structures. People began adopting a more relaxed moral code, questioning long-held beliefs and values. Despite the widespread embrace of new attitudes, there was also a yearning to return to a simpler, more innocent era. In 1920, Warren G. Harding was elected President of the United States. His campaign promised a "return to normalcy," securing him a decisive victory. Prohibition, enacted with the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919, made it illegal to sell and consume alcohol, except for "medicinal" purposes. This led to clandestine partying and drinking, sparking a wave of decadence that peaked during the flapper era of the late 1920s. Gangsters capitalized on the situation by bootlegging alcohol for substantial profits, resulting in significant mob violence during this period.
Alongside this modernity, women were gaining a new role in society. They secured the right to vote with the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 and continued to advocate for greater freedom and equality. Women began taking on a broader range of jobs outside the home. Previously, their employment had been largely confined to teaching, nursing, social services, or clerical work. Now, women ventured into fields like publishing, real estate, and other professions once deemed suitable only for men. Many women who remained at home spent less time on household chores, thanks to labor-saving devices like electric irons and washing machines. Some women embraced this new freedom, finding it liberating. Others, like Claire in The Verge, struggled to align their personal desires with societal expectations deeply ingrained over time. This internal conflict was emotionally challenging for some. Many women writers of the era, such as Virginia Woolf and Charlotte Perkins Gilman, explored this inner turmoil in their works.
During this period, Sigmund Freud's theories gained significant popularity in America. Freud delivered his inaugural lectures in the United States at Clark College in Massachusetts in 1909. Although the war momentarily shifted focus away from local concerns, Freud's influence truly surged in the U.S. after World War I. Freud proposed that mental illnesses stemmed from the "repression" of memories and experiences, which could be treated by uncovering their root causes. This process involved extensive discussions between the patient and the therapist. While some psychoanalysts quickly embraced Freud's "talking cures," others continued to rely on traditional treatments like rest, isolation, and electroshock therapy. Articles about psychoanalysis appeared in popular magazines and newspapers, and many "Freudian terms" became part of everyday language.
World War I profoundly affected the United States. Although the conflict took place overseas, many Americans had family members in the military, making the war a significant part of their lives. Numerous young soldiers returned home injured, serving as constant reminders of the atrocities humans could inflict upon one another. As Harry mentions in The Verge , "I’d like to have Charlie Emmons see her—he’s fixed up a lot of people shot to pieces in the war." The war signaled a "loss of innocence" for America, as people realized the potential threats from distant nations. Ironically, in Glaspell’s play, Claire views the war differently, seeing it as a missed...
(This entire section contains 771 words.)
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chance for societal transformation: "The war. There was another gorgeous chance. . . . But the war didn’t help. Oh, it was a stunning chance! But fast as we could—scuttled right back to the trim little thing we’d been shocked out of." For Claire, the war symbolizes the potential for creating a new world.
Amidst this era of significant change, there was also a surge of activity in the art world. The nation was beginning to develop its own cultural identity. European art movements like expressionism influenced many modern American artists. Greenwich Village in New York became a refuge for bohemian artists, who experimented with different styles and forms. During this time, the little theater movement also emerged. This movement saw local artists establishing small theaters to produce innovative works by American playwrights. The movement's origins can be traced back to Maurice Brown's founding of the Chicago Little Theatre in 1912. This was followed by the establishment of many other little theaters, including the Provincetown Players, founded by Susan Glaspell and George Cram Cook.
Literary Style
Expressionism
Expressionism was a prominent movement in literature and the arts during the early 20th century. It employs techniques such as distortion and symbolism to convey deep human emotions. In drama, expressionism is akin to "seeing the world through a particular character’s eyes." For instance, in The Verge, the set designs appear distorted and certain elements are exaggerated to reflect Claire’s experiences. When Claire feels confined, Glaspell utilizes visual cues to inform the audience. In the second act, Claire is seen in the tower through a "bulging window," which appears to be pushed outward from within. This visual metaphor highlights Claire’s emotional isolation and her yearning to escape her "prison-like" world. Various distorted elements throughout the play serve to express Claire’s internal emotional state physically. At the play's start, a strong beam of light shines through a trap door to illuminate the Breath of Life plant, giving it special importance. The plant stands out as a bright spot in an otherwise dark environment. The intense lighting adds a mystical aura to the scene. The plant is described as having "greater transparency than plants have had" and is located in a "hidden place" within the greenhouse, underscoring its uniqueness and peculiar nature, much like Claire herself.
Blank Verse
Blank verse consists of unrhymed lines of poetry. It is most commonly linked with iambic pentameter, where each line has five segments or feet ("iambs"), each composed of one soft and one strong accent, as in the line, "I wish I had a dog to call my own." Although blank verse often follows this iambic structure, it can vary as long as it maintains a consistent meter. Claire uses blank verse to express her dreams and emotions to other characters. Her use of this poetic form increases with her agitation, helping her to communicate her feelings more effectively. In act II, Claire’s interaction with Tom in the tower is notably rich with blank verse.
Symbolism
Symbolism involves using objects to represent or signify something beyond their literal meaning. The play is rich with symbolic imagery that helps convey the playwright's themes. For instance, in The Verge, the Edge Vine symbolizes Claire's aspiration to create something original and without precedent. The play is also replete with visual and textual symbols that hint at Claire's feelings of isolation and confinement. Numerous symbols refer to the patterns Claire seeks to disrupt, such as the frost patterns on the greenhouse window and the broken pattern of the tower where Claire finds solace. Additionally, there are many symbolic elements related to twisting and breaking, like the spiraling stems of the Edge Vine and the twisting spiral staircase leading up to Claire's tower.
Farce
Farce is a form of exaggerated humor featuring improbable scenarios. It typically includes boisterous physical comedy and the bustling activity of various characters. The Verge incorporates farcical elements in certain scenes to amplify the absurdity of the situations. For instance, one of the most farcical moments occurs in the opening scene as characters repeatedly "blow" in and out of the greenhouse door. Another humorous instance is when Tom is accidentally locked outside in the cold, forcing the characters to communicate with him through pantomime. Glaspell employs farce in The Verge to highlight the madness of the world and introduce some comedic aspects into the play.
Compare and Contrast
1920s: Women in the United States have just secured the right to vote with the adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment on August 26, 1920. They regard this as a significant triumph and pledge to use their voting power wisely to drive meaningful change.
Today: Many voters are indifferent about their voting rights. A large number don't even head to the polls, resulting in consistently low election turnout.
1920s: KDKA in Pittsburgh airs the first scheduled radio broadcast.
Today: Thousands of radio stations continuously broadcast across the U.S. and globally. Consumers now have the option to subscribe to satellite radio, offering hundreds of commercial-free channels.
1920s: A widespread fear of communism, known as the "red scare," grips the United States, perceived as a threat to democracy.
Today: After the Soviet Union's dissolution, communism is no longer seen as a major threat. Instead, terrorism has become the primary concern for U.S. security.
1920s: The internal horn Victrola makes phonographs accessible to many Americans. Millions purchase a Victrola for their homes, with the large furniture piece typically placed in the parlor.
Today: Personal electronic devices are available that can store thousands of songs in compact circuitry.
1920s: Prohibition is fully enforced, making alcohol illegal across the United States. Gangsters capitalize on this by bootlegging alcohol for substantial profits.
Today: Alcohol is legal in the United States, with its sale and distribution regulated by federal and state laws.
1920s: Early in the decade, a woman's hemline being nine inches above the ground is deemed scandalous.
Today: Women's fashion includes clothing that reveals legs, arms, and midriffs.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Bach, Gerhard. “Susan Glaspell: Mapping the Domains of Critical Revision,” in Susan Glaspell: Essays on Her Theater and Fiction, edited by Linda Ben-Zvi, University of Michigan Press, 1995, p. 257.
Ben-Zvi, Linda, Susan Glaspell: Essays on Her Theater and Fiction, edited by Linda Ben-Zvi, University of Michigan Press, 1995, pp. 6, 97.
Gainor, J. Ellen, Susan Glaspell in Context: American Theater, Culture, and Politics, 1915–1948, University of Michigan Press, 2001, pp. 144–69.
Nelligan, Liza Maeve. “‘The Haunting Beauty from the Life We’ve Left’: A Contextual Reading of Trifles and The Verge,” in Susan Glaspell: Essays on Her Theater and Fiction, edited by Linda Ben-Zvi, University of Michigan Press, 1995, p. 86.
Noe, Marcia. “The Verge: L’ecriture feminine at the Provincetown,” in Susan Glaspell: Essays on Her Theater and Fiction, edited by Linda Ben-Zvi, University of Michigan Press, 1995, p. 140.
Ozieblo, Barbara. “Suppression and Society in Susan Glaspell’s Theater,” in Susan Glaspell: Essays on Her Theater and Fiction, edited by Linda Ben-Zvi, University of Michigan Press, 1995, p. 115.
———, Susan Glaspell: A Critical Biography, University of North Carolina Press, 2000, p. 186.
Further Reading
Bigsby, C. W. E., A Critical Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Drama, Vol. 1, 1900–1940, Cambridge University Press, 1982. Bigsby explores the innovative changes in drama during the early twentieth century, offering detailed critical insights into some of the era's most impactful playwrights and theater groups.
Black, Cheryl, The Women of Provincetown Players, 1915–1922, University of Alabama Press, 2001. Black delivers a comprehensive examination of the Provincetown Players and highlights the significant contributions of the women who played crucial roles in establishing and maintaining this experimental theater group.
Hillenbrand, Mark, Produce Your Play without a Producer: A Survival Guide for Actors and Playwrights Who Need a Production, Smith & Kraus, 2001. Hillenbrand provides a detailed guide on every aspect of staging a play, from initial readings to the final performance. The book includes an extensive bibliography and lists of national and regional theater organizations, drama bookstores, rights and royalties agencies, and state arts agencies.
Styan, J. L., Modern Drama in Theory and Practice: Expressionism and Epic Theatre, Vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, 1983. Styan traces the development of expressionism in theater from its early roots in Germany to its evolution in various other countries, including the United States, and provides a thorough history of epic theater worldwide.