leads the ANC, aims to continue the reform efforts initiated by his predecessor to address the nation's challenges.

Literary Heritage
South Africa is home to a diverse array of cultures, including Dutch, German, and English white settlers, black Africans from various tribes across the continent, ‘‘coloureds’’ (individuals of mixed descent), and Asians (primarily from India and Pakistan). White colonists were initially drawn to the South African coast in the eighteenth century by its plentiful resources. Since their arrival, the white minority has sought to dominate the black majority in the region.

When Fugard wrote his play Boesman and Lena in 1969, all major black African political organizations had been outlawed, and blacks were segregated and confined to Bantustans (‘‘homelands’’), with travel outside these areas restricted, except for limited work opportunities for whites. By this time, the minority white population controlled over eighty percent of the land, all governmental power, and most natural resources, although black African uprisings against white dominance were frequent during the 1960s and 1970s.

During this period, the arts, particularly theater, faced significant challenges. Although stage plays were generally subjected to less censorship than novels, television, and films—which were frequently banned before being shown to the public—the apartheid laws made theater production increasingly challenging. Growing international opposition to South Africa's apartheid policies led many countries and playwrights to boycott the nation. In 1965, new apartheid legislation was enacted that banned mixed-race casts and enforced racial segregation in audiences. By 1966, British Equity prohibited its actors from performing under these conditions. As a result, South Africa experienced a shortage of plays, performers, and touring companies. Although the South African government provided some funding for the arts, accessing these funds required compliance with the stringent apartheid regulations governing public performances. Consequently, many artists chose to work outside the state-supported theater system.

Some artists, like Gibson Kent, formed all-black touring troupes that performed exclusively for black audiences. Meanwhile, other companies, such as the Space Theatre and the Market Theatre, found ways to bypass apartheid restrictions, producing works with mixed-race casts and occasionally mixed audiences. The laws enforcing segregation of casts and audiences were not abolished until 1977. During this period, several prominent playwrights, performers, and writers, including Athol Fugard, emerged against the backdrop of political turmoil. These artists are often credited with increasing both national and international awareness of South Africa's apartheid policies.

Athol Fugard began and continued his writing career amidst South Africa's apartheid era and was regarded by the government as a "political risk." He frequently faced censorship and was sometimes barred from traveling to and from his homeland. Today, Fugard is celebrated both in South Africa and globally as one of the greatest living playwrights in the English language. He is acknowledged for his role in challenging and helping to dismantle the unjust apartheid system through his plays. Fugard's works are known for their intimate portrayals of tragic events in the lives of a few characters, often featuring mixed-race casts and set against the complex political, social, and economic backdrop of South Africa. His dramas highlight the devastating impact of apartheid and serve as a microcosm of the country as a whole.

Point of View
Every narrative unfolds with a "point of view," a lens through which the events of the plot gain additional significance, influenced by the storyteller. Valley Song provides its audience with three distinct perspectives at various moments in the performance. Abraam Jonkers, a "Coloured" South African in his seventies; Veronica Jonkers, his seventeen-year-old black granddaughter; and The Author, Fugard himself at sixty, each occasionally address the audience directly or converse with unseen characters on stage, sharing their unique interpretations of the play's events. Through the characters' "soliloquies," they disclose more about themselves than they might in conversations with others. Collectively, they embody three diverse voices on a singular theme: What is the future of the "new" South Africa?

When Abraam is alone, he speaks to his deceased wife, Betty, attempting to resolve his internal struggles. By hearing him express the distress he feels as his granddaughter distances herself from him, and his apprehensions about the intentions of the white man purchasing his land, the audience gains a deeper empathy for this sometimes obstinate elderly man. Having endured the entire apartheid era and witnessed its devastating impact on his nation, Abraam is less optimistic about the future than Veronica, and far more skeptical of white society. Abraam's viewpoint reflects that of a coloured man from the old South Africa: impoverished, under-educated, accustomed to subservience to whites, yet kind-hearted, well-meaning, and supportive of his family.

Veronica directly addresses the audience, and her demeanor in these moments reveals that she is far stronger and more independent than the quiet, devoted granddaughter facade she presents to her "Oupa." She expresses thoughts she would never share with her grandfather to avoid causing him pain. "He's like a slave now to that little piece of land," she exclaims. "That's all he lives for, and it's not even his. He talks about nothing else, worries about nothing else, prays for nothing else." Her perspective represents the youth of South Africa. Too young to remember the harrowing past, and weary of seeing its burden oppress their parents and grandparents, young black South Africans, Fugard seems to suggest, are eager to bring new hope for the future and claim a role in shaping it.

The perspective of The Author, while not necessarily the most crucial, is undoubtedly the most prominent in the play. Unlike Abraam and Veronica, who represent voices from South Africa's historically oppressed and marginalized colored and black communities, The Author speaks from a position of privilege. As a white male, he has benefited from a quality education, comfortable housing, access to good employment, and a role in governing and managing the economy. In his direct address to the audience, he reveals his guilt over purchasing old Buks' land and laments that his dreams for a transformed South Africa will not be realized in his lifetime. The Author's viewpoint reflects that of many whites during South Africa's significant shift from a racially segregated society to a free and open democracy: a mix of fear, excitement, a bit of guilt and regret, along with pride and a sense of achievement. As an older, white South African stepping aside to allow the younger generation of black South Africans to shape the future, The Author feels nostalgia for the past but is also eager to see the world evolve into what he had always hoped it would become.

Setting
The setting of a play significantly impacts the effectiveness of its plot, themes, and characters. The location of the events, the era in which they take place, and the cultural characteristics of the society in which the characters live all contribute to the drama's overall effect on its audience.

Valley Song is set in the present day, in and around Nieu-Bethesda, a small village nestled in a valley of the Sneeuberg Mountains within South Africa's vast semi-desert Karoo region. Fugard notes in a preface to his play that, like many rural South African villages, "Nieu-Bethesda is still essentially divided into two areas: the white town and the outlying ‘location’ populated by coloureds and blacks." In this specific rural village, there are 950 "coloured" (mixed-race) individuals and only 65 whites. Despite the significant changes in South Africa since the final apartheid laws were officially repealed in 1992, the rich, fertile farmland in the valley remains entirely owned by whites.

In the preface to his play, Fugard meticulously ensures that readers grasp the essence of the Karoo region. Despite being a nearly barren desert where the relentless sun scorches the land day after day, it remains stunningly beautiful. He cites Carolyn Slaughter, who remarked, "This is the Karoo. And for those who have lost their hearts to it, no other place on earth can compare." This striking juxtaposition of harsh nature and alluring beauty captivates and repels the characters in the play. The Author describes "a glorious Karoo spring day" following a rain, when the earth is rich and alive with the scents of roses and pine trees. Though he has spent much of his life removed from nature, the allure of rebirth and renewal draws him back to the "real" world in a natural setting.

Yet, even in the rural landscape, the characters cannot escape the era they live in, which is as crucial to the story as the setting itself. In the few short years since South Africa dismantled apartheid and declared itself a free society, much appears to have transformed. There is the promise of new opportunities for black people in urban areas, and there is recourse through the government and legal systems for injustices rooted in racial discrimination. Nonetheless, equality remains elusive. The Author can nonchalantly drive into Nieu-Bethesda and write a check for the land that Abraam Jonkers has diligently cared for his entire life but will never own.

Sources
Barbera, Jack. Review of Valley Song, in Nation, January 29, 1996, p. 35.

Bemrose, John. Review of Valley Song, in Maclean's, April 29, 1996, p. 71.

Fugard, Athol. Transcript of speech, in Twentieth Century Literature, Winter, 1993, p. 381.

---. Valley Song. Theatre Communications Group, 1996.

King, Robert L. Review of Valley Song, in North American Review, March-April, 1996, p. 45.

Richards, Lloyd. Interview with Athol Fugard in Paris Review, Summer, 1989, pp. 129-151.

Turvin, Mark. Article, in Arizona Arts Review Online, December, 1997, http://www.mychele.com/aaro/song.html

Further Reading
Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre, 8th ed. Allyn and Bacon, 1998. Brockett's History of the Theatre is a detailed account, spanning over 2,000 years of global theatrical heritage. Particularly noteworthy is the chapter titled ‘‘The Theatre of Africa,’’ which the author introduced in the seventh edition of this esteemed theater reference. This chapter explores the historical and performance traditions of nations like Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Zaire, and many others across Africa, including South Africa.

Fugard, Athol. Notebooks 1960-1977. A. D. Donker, 1983. Fugard began recording his thoughts and experiences in notebooks starting in 1959 when he traveled to Europe with his wife. His initial entries served as the foundation for his 1960 play, The Blood Knot. Since then, the brief sketches and concepts in his notebooks have inspired the characters, plots, and themes of his plays. This collection of Fugard's notebooks chronicles the first part of his career, from the creation of The Blood Knot to a production of Sizwe Banzi Is Dead at London's Royal Court Theatre in 1977.

Gray, Stephen, ed. Athol Fugard. McGraw-Hill, 1982. This compilation of scholarly work on Athol Fugard is part of the ‘‘South African Literature Series’’ and includes a timeline of notable events in the playwright's life, reviews of his plays, critical essays, interviews with the author, and a comprehensive bibliography for further study.

Thompson, Leonard. A History of South Africa. Yale University Press, 1996. Thompson provides an overview of South Africa's entire history, from its earliest inhabitants to contemporary times, with a special focus on the black majority population.

Waldmeir, Patti. Anatomy of a Miracle: The End of Apartheid and the Birth of the New South Africa. W. W. Norton, 1997. Waldmeir, a journalist who became familiar with Nelson Mandela and F. W. de Klerk, the key figures in dismantling apartheid, observed the events leading to the integration of South African society and the return of political power to the black majority. In Anatomy of a Miracle, she uses interviews and first-hand accounts to narrate the story of apartheid's end, from the turmoil of the early 1980s to Mandela's release from prison and his inauguration as president in 1994.