John Stuart Mill, a towering intellect of the modern age, gave us the term "utilitarianism," which became the focus of his concise five-part essay. He took the existing philosophical notion, which evaluates the morality of actions based on their ability to maximize overall happiness, and imbued it with fresh vigor. Mill belonged to a small yet impactful group of English radical reformers known as utilitarians, all of whom were dedicated to societal change through their intellectual endeavors. By the time Mill published Utilitarianism in 1863, he was already an esteemed figure in political economy, known equally for his contributions to political theory and philosophy. His earlier work, On Liberty, published in 1859, remains a seminal text advocating for civil liberties and cultural freedom.

Influences and Early Origins

Mill's immersion in utilitarian thought began with his father, James Mill, who was a close associate and fervent follower of Jeremy Bentham. Bentham, lauded as the founder of the British utilitarian movement, drew inspiration from European intellectual giants like Helvétius, Beccaria, Voltaire, and d’Alembert. The foundation of British utilitarian philosophy was Bentham's groundbreaking work, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), which applied scientific scrutiny to ethics and law. Bentham's work laid out the belief that human actions are driven by two masters: pleasure and pain. He defined utility as that which fosters "benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness," or prevents "mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness," principles that John Stuart Mill embraced and expanded upon.

A Shift in Perspective

By the 1860s, utilitarianism required a reevaluation. While once widely discussed among educated circles in Britain and Europe, it had lost some of its original momentum. Utilitarians were concerned about their philosophy being misrepresented as mere expediency by the burgeoning industrial class. The abundance of literature on utilitarianism risked diluting its core principles. Mill, amid reassessing his own beliefs and those of Bentham, found an opportunity to articulate changes in his philosophical stance, which he did in Utilitarianism. Although not his most celebrated work, it stands as the most recognized essay on the topic.

Beyond Scientific Rationalization

In the "General Remarks" of his essay, Mill departs from Bentham’s reliance on the scientific method to validate philosophical principles. Both philosophers employed deductive reasoning, basing their arguments on unprovable assumptions or first principles. Intuitive truths, like humanity’s constant pursuit of pleasure over pain, may be commonsensical but resist scientific validation. Unlike Bentham, Mill argues that the morality of actions extends beyond commonsense observations, suggesting that moral laws can evaluate actions and their consequences. He aims to show the proximity of inductive reasoning to deduced utilitarian conclusions.

Qualitative Distinctions in Pleasure

In the second chapter, Mill delineates "what utilitarianism is," introducing qualitative distinctions to Bentham’s ideas. He challenges Bentham’s view that mental pleasures are superior because they are more enduring and cost-effective, arguing instead that differences aren't merely quantitative. Mill refutes accusations that utilitarianism is crudely hedonistic, asserting that pleasures derived from intellectual or artistic pursuits are of a higher quality than those from mere physical indulgences. Even if nobility doesn’t ensure greater happiness, Mill emphasizes the societal benefit of noble and virtuous examples, aligning utilitarianism with Epicurean values that prioritize intellectual cultivation.

Reconciling Moral Standards and Motives

Chapter three addresses critiques of utilitarianism’s demanding moral standards. Early utilitarians separated an action’s result from the motive behind it, underscoring that one can will personal happiness without guaranteeing it. Critics argued that utilitarianism's standards were impractical, expecting individuals to prioritize societal good as a duty. Mill counters this by differentiating moral standards from personal motivations, suggesting that the "natural" or "social feelings of...