Historical Context
Philosophical and Literary Influences
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (1889–1951) left a significant mark on various writers and philosophers at the dawn of the twentieth century. It is thought by some that he was obsessed with the idea of achieving moral and philosophical perfection. His most renowned work, Tractatus (1921), was later dismissed by Wittgenstein himself as meaningless. By 1953, he had entirely renounced the ideas he initially presented in Tractatus. He argued that most philosophical discourse about life is nonsensical because language inherently restricts thought. According to Wittgenstein, the purest truths are beyond verbal expression. He also proposed that the philosopher's task is to articulate what is possible rather than what is conceivable. This perspective influenced Murdoch's efforts to articulate specifics while avoiding abstract references. Through Wittgenstein's impact, Murdoch believed that life can only be shown, not explained.
Raymond Queneau (1903–1976), a French author and a precursor to postmodernist literary theory, bridged the gap between surrealism and existentialism. His fascination with language led him to write some novels phonetically instead of using standard spelling. Murdoch attempted to translate one of his novels into English, but she found his use of colloquial language too challenging to master. Some critics suggest that Queneau’s Pierrot Mon Ami (1942) served as an inspiration for Murdoch’s Under the Net. In fact, Murdoch's narrator Jake takes Queneau’s book with him when he is forced to leave his apartment at the beginning of Under the Net. The book is also dedicated to Queneau.
Jake is often seen as a Sartrean hero, referencing the French philosopher and author Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980). Sartre was a leading figure in existentialism, which emphasizes individual experience as the foundation of all knowledge. This philosophy highlights the solitude and isolation felt by individuals in an absurd world, where there is no evidence of a spiritual realm beyond this reality. Sartre’s play No Exit, one of his most frequently anthologized works, tells the story of three people trapped in hell, conveying the theme that life is shaped by personal choices—a theme reflected in Jake's narrative.
Another comparison drawn to Jake is the protagonist in Samuel Beckett’s Murphy, a tale about an alienated young man who struggles to maintain employment, only managing a temporary job as a male nurse in a mental hospital. Similar to Jake, Murphy finds it difficult to engage in personal relationships. Samuel Beckett (1906–1989) is perhaps best known for his play Waiting for Godot (1953). In Beckett’s work, language often proves futile, as his characters frequently fail to express the inexpressible, echoing Wittgenstein's ideas. This concept permeates Murdoch’s writing.
Youths in Postwar Britain
Before World War II, Britain stood as a dominant global power, amassing wealth through its colonial policies. However, the aftermath of World War II left the British government financially drained. Soon after the war, Winston Churchill lost his position as prime minister, with the Labor Party gaining prominence. In 1957, Harold MacMillan assumed the role of prime minister and advocated for change, which many saw as the dismantling of the old British Empire. Some historians argue that by shifting focus from international to domestic matters, he satisfied much of the population, who were busy recovering from the war and redefining their identities.
In the 1950s, British youths did not enjoy the same freedoms as their American peers. The war had stripped them of many pleasures and dreams. They found solace in American music, which resonated more with them than British productions. Unable to afford costly instruments, their homemade musical efforts paled in comparison to the imported tunes. This changed in the mid-1950s when...
(This entire section contains 850 words.)
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Lonnie Donegan, a British youth, sparked a new trend. With just a guitar and a makeshift rhythm section, often a washboard, Donegan captured the imagination of British teenagers. This musical movement gained traction, leading to numerous bands either emulating Donegan or experimenting with their own styles.
By the 1960s, British youths had a bit more disposable income than in the previous decade, and new bands seemed to spring up everywhere. The Beatles and the Rolling Stones became the most popular British bands in the United States. Suddenly, American youths were looking to Britain for musical inspiration. London emerged as the hub of pop music and fashion, with designer Mary Quant and model Twiggy, known for her extremely thin frame, making bold statements in the fashion world.
In the early 1960s, youth gangs began to form in the seaside towns of southern England. The two most notable were the Mods, who preferred stylish clothing, rode motorcycles, and listened to American Motown music, and the Rockers, who donned leather attire and enjoyed rock and roll.
The taboos surrounding sexuality, deeply rooted in the Victorian era, began to erode in the 1950s and 1960s in Britain. This shift was first marked by a court ruling that allowed D. H. Lawrence’s 1930 novel Lady Chatterley’s Lover to be legally published. The decision was so well-received that over 2 million copies were eventually printed. Films followed this trend with more sexually explicit scenes, and song lyrics became more provocative. During this period, the women’s movement also gained significant momentum.
Literary Style
First Person Narrative
Murdoch employs a first-person narrator in Under the Net, but instead of using a female voice, she opts for a male perspective. Some critics argue that this choice allows her to write with less self-consciousness. The protagonist, Jake, is spontaneous, driving the story at a brisk pace as he jumps from one thought and reaction to another. By using a first-person narrator, Murdoch can delve into Jake’s inner life, giving readers access to his thoughts. However, this perspective limits the development of other characters since everything is filtered through Jake's viewpoint. Even the dialogue of other characters is interpreted through Jake.
Setting
Setting is always significant in Murdoch’s novels, and Under the Net is no exception. Throughout the narrative, readers are constantly reminded that the characters are either in London or Paris, as Murdoch provides specific street names. Jake critiques different parts of the city, expressing his preferences for certain neighborhoods or sections. Actual rivers, bridges, and pubs are frequently mentioned, grounding the story in real locations.
The Great Quest
From the very beginning of the first chapter, Murdoch frames Under the Net as a grand quest. Her protagonist is forced out of his comfortable home and must search for a new place to live. This initial event sets off a series of actions, as Jake stumbles first to find a home, then to reconnect with an old lover, and later to recover an old book and a stolen transcript. Along the way, questions arise that are not fully answered until the book's conclusion. This technique keeps readers engaged, eager to discover what happens next. The twists and secrets that confound Jake also captivate readers, drawing them deeper into the story.
Traditional Realism
After World War II, many artists sought to break free from the constraints of realism, moving towards abstraction and experimentation by deconstructing old artistic forms and reconstructing them in new ways. Murdoch distinguished herself among her peers by her commitment to realism. She looked back to nineteenth-century English literature, with its traditional plot structures and rational narrative perspectives. Her novels are firmly rooted in the real world, rather than fantasy. She is meticulous in naming things and places. For example, if she mentions that Hugo once worked in a fireworks factory, she details that environment. She includes historical references to riots between police and labor unions. Her work draws favorable comparisons to novelists such as Jane Austen, George Eliot, and Sir Walter Scott.
Preliminary Writing
Murdoch was known for meticulously planning her novels before she began writing. She had a clear vision of the plot and its progression before putting pen to paper. She maintained control over her characters, understanding their actions and motivations thoroughly. She knew precisely when to escalate the tension, particularly as her protagonist became overwhelmed with emotions. The climax occurred at an exact moment, followed by a resolution. It was said that she wrote detailed preliminary notes, usually including summaries for each chapter. These notes contained various elements, such as snippets of dialogue, character descriptions, and potential beginnings and endings for the chapters. This outline often underwent multiple revisions before she started writing the actual book. Murdoch wrote her outlines in longhand, and the full manuscript was also handwritten in notebooks, with text on only one side of each page. The blank side was reserved for later revisions.
Compare and Contrast
• 1950s: Elizabeth II is crowned Queen of England, with Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden, and Harold MacMillan serving successively as prime ministers.
Today: Elizabeth II remains Queen of England. Her reign has spanned the terms of ten prime ministers, including Tony Blair, who held office in the early 2000s.
• 1950s: Existentialism, initially proposed by Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, is further developed in France by Jean-Paul Sartre through his essays and novels.
Today: Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, has left a significant impact on global literary criticism with his essays on deconstruction and postmodern theories.
• 1950s: Forgetfulness in the elderly is often seen as a natural part of aging, with general terms like dementia or senility used to describe these symptoms.
Today: Decades of research have validated Alois Alzheimer’s theories, leading to the recognition of Alzheimer’s disease, which currently affects over 4 million people in the United States alone.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Bove, Cheryl K., Understanding Iris Murdoch, University of South Carolina Press, 1993, p. 36.
Conradi, Peter J., Iris Murdoch: A Life, W. W. Norton, 2001, pp. 380, 385.
Kellman, Steven, “Shakespearean Plot in the Novels of Iris Murdoch,” in Iris Murdoch, edited by Harold Bloom, Modern Critical Views series, Chelsea House Publishers, 1986, p. 89.
Russell, John, “Under Iris Murdoch’s Exact, Steady Gaze,” in the New York Times, February 22, 1990.
Todd, Richard, Iris Murdoch, Methuen, 1984, pp. 13, 16.
Further Reading
Antonaccio, Maria, Picturing the Human: The Moral Thought of Iris Murdoch, Oxford University Press, 2000. While much focus has been on Murdoch as a novelist, her philosophical contributions are often neglected. This book is among the first to address that gap. Antonaccio delves into Murdoch's significant impact on moral and religious philosophy.
Bayley, John, Elegy for Iris, St. Martin’s Press, 1999. Bayley penned this book before his wife, Iris Murdoch, passed away. She was battling Alzheimer’s disease at the time, and he shares his memories of her and their life together. The film "Iris: A Memoir of Iris Murdoch" is based on this book, both of which garnered critical acclaim.
------, Iris and Her Friends: A Memoir of Memory and Desire, W. W. Norton, 1999. This is Bayley’s second memoir about his wife, written posthumously. Critics have praised the book for its heartfelt portrayal of their loving relationship.
Byatt, A. S., Degrees of Freedom: The Novels of Iris Murdoch, Chatto and Windus, 1965. Byatt investigates the philosophical influences on Murdoch’s early novels and how these ideas are reflected in her works.
Kaufmann, Walter Arnold, ed., Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre, Meridian Books, 1984. Celebrated as an excellent introduction to existentialist philosophy, this book discusses both philosophical essays and the influence of existentialism on literature. It covers works such as Dostoevsky’s "Notes from the Underground," Camus’s "The Myth of Sisyphus," and Sartre’s short story “The Wall,” and includes philosophers like Kierkegaard and Nietzsche.
