West. So when Lewis, with an initial group of eight recruits, began his descent of the Ohio River from Pittsburgh in a fifty-five-foot galley on August 31, 1803, he would be in the United States not merely to the Mississippi but, nominally at least, for many months beyond St. Louis. Jefferson instructed him to develop peaceful relations with all the diverse Indian tribes he would meet along the way and to record minutely the scientific data that the president craved.

It was a back-breaking trip from the start. The Ohio River was low that fall, in many places barely floating the vessel. This part of the journey took nearly two and a half months. Reaching the Mississippi, Lewis faced the prospect of urging the craft upstream to the Missouri and then sailing, paddling, poling, boosting it up that river as far as it went—how far he had no idea. At St. Louis and at a camp established nearby, Lewis had to complete the roster of the approximately thirty men who would make up the expedition, lay in supplies, and generally make all necessary preparations for a journey into the unknown expected to last more than two years. Finally, in May of 1804, they were off.

The bulk of Ambrose’s book thereafter is a lively narrative of this dangerous and frequently harrowing journey. Mostly soldiers, his group also included Clark’s resourceful slave York and, beginning in the Mandan villages, the family consisting of the French-Canadian trader Toussaint Charbonneau, his remarkable teenaged Shoshone wife Sacagawea, and their infant son. Lewis and Clark wanted Charbonneau as an interpreter; Ambrose makes it clear that they never did value Sacagawea, or for that matter York, properly.

Any decently written account of this wilderness adventure is bound to be interesting, but several virtues lift Ambrose’s above the ordinary. He has an eye for the small but pivotal event that alters history. He notes that the twenty-one-year-old Lewis met Clark in the first place because the former had to be transferred to Clark’s rifle company following an irreconcilable conflict with a lieutenant in another outfit apparently brought about by one of Lewis’ besetting weaknesses—drink. Ambrose details and reflects upon several crucial moments the expedition might have come to ruin. A conflict which erupted soon after entering Sioux territory in September, 1804, exemplified the restraint that the impulsive Lewis usually managed to summon in emergencies. Struggling to avoid conflict in the face of severe provocation, Lewis must have struggled with the temptation to loose a bit of cannon fire upon the provocative Sioux that might have ended all chances for success then and there, but Lewis found that holding a lighted taper near the charge proved sufficient.

Ambrose also handles ably those occasions when the historical record remains silent. He re-creates imaginatively scenes such as the reunification of Lewis and Clark at the beginning of their expedition three years after their earlier military service together. In his penultimate chapter, Ambrose rehearses the thoughts that might have drifted through Lewis’ mind the night of his suicide. In such instances, the author is careful to inform his readers, ready to be swept along by the drama of the moment, that the scenes he creates are only—can only be—conjectural.

He deserves much credit also for never allowing the compelling physical adventure and conflict to obscure Lewis’ faithful adherence to Jefferson’s insistence on the scientific importance of the expedition. He stresses Lewis’ patient recording of the minutiae of flora and fauna that were in many cases totally unknown to the scientific community of the day. Ambrose also surveys critically those situations in which Lewis had to make decisions respecting the safeguarding of the notes and journals with their painstakingly detailed descriptions of the topography and life of the wilderness and the astronomical measurements necessary to determine latitude and longitude—and sometimes he finds Lewis wanting. On the return trip, Lewis undertook a side expedition with a small party to explore the Marias tributary of the Missouri in territory controlled by the dreaded Blackfeet Indians. This incident, which has been much praised by other writers as illustrating many of Lewis’ more sterling qualities, Ambrose regards as an ill- considered venture that unnecessarily threatened the fruits of the expedition and its members. He never allows his admiration for Lewis’ resourcefulness, “courage undaunted” (Jefferson’s phrase), leadership, and versatility to cloud his perception of Lewis’ judgment, whose quality Ambrose finds sometimes open to doubt.

Ambrose acknowledges but properly does not dwell upon the vices Lewis shared with other well-bred Virginian males of his time: sexism, racism, chauvinism. He never seemed to perceive, much less employ, Sacagawea’s potential linguistic and diplomatic usefulness to the expedition. Nor would it have occurred to him—as it did to slaveholding Jefferson—to question the institution of slavery, though Clark’s refusal even to consider York’s request for reunion with his wife (a piece of someone else’s property in another state) is the best example in the book of the ingrained racism of the Virginia gentleman in the early nineteenth century. Indians, on the other hand, were viewed as potentially regenerate commercial partners—as long as they understood who was regulating trade. Of the right and destiny of the United States to effect control of this vast wilderness neither he nor Jefferson had any doubts.

Although close to being the ideal commander of such a venture, Lewis demonstrated on his return how unfit he was either to arrange for the publication of his jealously guarded journals or to govern the Territory of Louisiana following Jefferson’s appointment of him to that post in February of 1807. His obsession with commercial prospects in the West inevitably fostered charges of neglect of duty and conflicts of interest. His short temper irked his immediate subordinate, the politically experienced Frederick Bates. The spirit of independence nurtured by his close relationship with Jefferson and three years of unquestioned military authority did not serve him well in his new position, especially after James Madison succeeded Jefferson as president. Why Lewis did not so much as appoint an editor for his journal remains a mystery to this day.

His personal life also deteriorated. Despite being a handsome hero who longed for a wife, none of his courtships thrived. He resumed the hard drinking that he had necessarily kept in check on the trail. Drugs which he took to ward off the effects of malaria also took their toll, and he piled up debts. Ambrose admits that the explanation of Lewis’ decline can only be problematical but inclines toward the view that Lewis was a manic depressive.

As partial evidence, Ambrose offers the long, unaccountable gaps in Lewis’ journal while on the expedition (although his supposed disorder did not seem to affect his leadership or day-to- day relationships with his men). He could lead soldiers and explore unflaggingly, but he could not always bring himself to write. What he did write is detailed and impressive, but he could not pursue systematically the steps needed to make it available for his countrymen. Fortunately, Clark and other soldiers also kept journals.

Burned out at age thirty-five, Lewis lapsed into psychosis on a trip to Washington, D.C. Although some writers have argued that Lewis was murdered, neither of the men who knew him best—William Clark and Thomas Jefferson—doubted that his death was a suicide. Five years later Nicholas Biddle, urged on by Clark, published a paraphrase of Lewis’ journal, but a complete edition with all of his observations of flora and fauna, did not appear until 1904, exactly one century after the party started up the Missouri River. In the meantime, most of his—and Clark’s—original discoveries were rediscovered and renamed. Thus, as Ambrose points out, Lewis lost his chance to rank as one of the great naturalists of the century.

Undaunted Courage does contain a few lapses in accuracy and judgment. Ambrose’s praise of Lewis’ phrasing in his journals as “better” than that of James Joyce and William Faulkner (on page 67) is ludicrous. In describing the prior adventures of Alexander Mackenzie on page 73, Ambrose identifies the “Northern Ocean” as the Atlantic; it should be the Arctic. He places the city of The Dalles in the modern state of Washington instead of Oregon (page 302). Also, the chronology of his account of Lewis’ 1808 life in St. Louis as territorial governor is needlessly awkward and confusing. Occasionally a short stretch of prose is inserted, word-for-word, in two different places. These errors do not, however, seriously mar this fine narrative of Meriwether Lewis’ part in American history.

The documentation is full and easy to consult. Ambrose identifies his sources fully not only in the bibliography but once in the notes to each chapter. As a consequence, the reader does not face the all-too-common experience of hunting through pages of notes to pin down a reference.

Sources for Further Study

Chicago Tribune. March 3, 1996, XIV, p. 1.

The Christian Science Monitor. April 3, 1996, p. 15.

Los Angeles Times Book Review. April 7, 1996, p. 3.

The New York Review of Books. XLIII, April 4, 1996, p. 18.

The New York Times Book Review. CI, March 10, 1996, p. 9.

Newsweek. CXXVII, February 19, 1996, p. 70.

Publishers Weekly. CCXLII, December 4, 1995, p. 46.

The Wall Street Journal. January 30, 1996, p. A16.

The Washington Post Book World. XXVI, February 11, 1996, p. 3.

Wild West. IX, December, 1996, p. 74.

The Revolutionary War
In 1774, the year of Lewis's birth, what we now call the United States was comprised of thirteen British colonies. These colonies were unhappy due to their lack of representation in the British Parliament. The Revolutionary War commenced with battles at Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts. The following year, the Continental Congress endorsed the Declaration of Independence, primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson. The war concluded with an American victory in 1783, leading to the founding of the United States of America.

The First U.S. Government
The initial U.S. government operated under the Articles of Confederation, which was a notably weak system lacking an executive branch. In 1787, state delegates ratified the U.S. Constitution, and George Washington was unanimously elected as the president of the new nation. He appointed Jefferson as secretary of state, though Jefferson resigned from this role in 1793.

The new nation encountered numerous challenges. With Britain and France at war, the United States struggled to remain neutral. Additionally, tensions arose with Spanish Florida and Louisiana. A treaty in 1795 resolved border disputes and secured U.S. shipping rights on the Mississippi River. Domestically, Washington faced frontier unrest when an Indian confederation revolted in the Northwest Territory, which was quelled by U.S. forces. Washington also dispatched over 10,000 troops to western Pennsylvania to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion, sparked by new taxes on whiskey producers. After two terms, Washington retired, and John Adams was elected president. His administration saw growing rifts between the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties.

The Jefferson Years
Jefferson, a staunch Republican, became the third president of the United States. He was the first to be inaugurated in the new capital, Washington, D.C. From the outset, Jefferson faced challenges from his Federalist adversaries. He blocked several Federalist judges from taking office, as these appointments were made by Adams on his last night as president. William Marbury, one of the appointees, petitioned the Supreme Court to compel the executive branch to deliver his commission. However, Chief Justice John Marshall decided that the Supreme Court lacked this authority. This ruling established the principle of judicial review, granting the Supreme Court the power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.

The Louisiana Purchase
Spain had controlled Louisiana since 1762 until a secret treaty transferred it to France. Spain struggled to defend the territory from American settlers. Napoleon Bonaparte, the leader of France, envisioned restoring France's North American empire. By controlling Louisiana, he intended for France to supplant Spain as the dominant European power in western North America. However, a slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint Domingue—modern-day Haiti—strained France's resources, leaving few troops to secure Louisiana.

Jefferson was deeply concerned upon learning about the treaty between France and Spain because a French-controlled Spain could obstruct U.S. westward expansion. Moreover, the French might disrupt U.S. commerce along the Mississippi River. In response, Jefferson dispatched U.S. ambassador Robert Livingstone to France to negotiate the acquisition of New Orleans, ensuring continued American access to the Mississippi. To the surprise of many Americans, the French minister revealed France's willingness to sell all of Louisiana. Napoleon had several motives for this decision. Firstly, with an impending war against Britain, France wanted to avoid conflict with the United States. Additionally, all French troops had been deployed to Saint Domingue, leaving none in Louisiana. Protecting Louisiana would be challenging, and Napoleon saw an opportunity to sell it to raise funds for military supplies. Lastly, by selling to the United States, Napoleon aimed to create a counterbalance to Britain's influence in North America.

The two nations finalized a treaty on May 2, 1803, transferring Louisiana to the United States for $15 million. The Senate ratified the treaty with France on October 20, officially completing the Louisiana Purchase. This acquisition doubled the United States' size. Although the territory's boundaries were not clearly defined—such as the uncertainty about how far north it extended—Americans knew it reached westward to the Rocky Mountains.

Western Explorations
Besides the Lewis and Clark expedition, several other significant western explorations took place. Zebulon Pike, a young army officer, embarked on a mission to locate the source of the Red River, which flows through Louisiana along the northern Texas border. This river was crucial because the United States claimed it marked the Louisiana Territory's western boundary with New Spain. Pike led his exploration to the Rocky Mountains in what is now Colorado and, in 1807, ventured south into what is present-day New Mexico. His group reached the Rio Grande, in New Spain, where they were detained by the Spanish cavalry. Pike was eventually released and, upon returning to the United States, reported promising business opportunities with the Spanish in the Southwest.

American Indians and the United States
From the moment colonists first settled in North America, they consistently displaced American Indians, pushing them further westward. In 1794, the defeat of an Indian alliance in the Northwest Territory led to the Treaty of Greenville. This agreement granted the United States access to certain Indian lands in the Northwest Territory and assured safe passage for U.S. citizens traveling through these regions. During the early 1800s, thousands of American settlers flooded into this area, establishing farms and communities. In an effort to curb this expansion, the British government supplied military support to Indian tribes in the Northwest Territory. Shawnee chief Tecumseh aspired to unite the American Indians of the Northwest Territory, the South, and the eastern Mississippi River valley to resist the settlers. William Henry Harrison, who would later become president, was the governor of the Indiana Territory and viewed Tecumseh as a significant threat to American authority. In 1811, Harrison's forces attacked the Indian coalition, compelling the Indian warriors to retreat and effectively ending Tecumseh’s vision of a unified Indian confederation.

The War of 1812
Many Americans suspected that the British had provoked the Indians against the United States. Members of Congress began advocating for war with Britain. Some of these lawmakers believed that a victorious war could expand the United States by annexing Florida and Canada. The strongest opposition to these "War Hawks" came from New England Federalists. Nonetheless, President James Madison declared that Britain, which had been forcibly recruiting American sailors and violating U.S. neutrality, was already at war with the United States. In June 1812, the War of 1812 commenced. Following the victory in December 1814, the United States once more redefined its boundaries.

America in the 1990s
In 1992, Democrats reclaimed the presidency for the first time in twelve years with the election of Bill Clinton, who would serve two terms. However, in 1994, voters handed control of both the House and the Senate to the Republicans. The Clinton administration faced numerous domestic and international challenges. Under Clinton's leadership, the nation witnessed a significant economic boom and achieved a balanced federal budget for the first time in years. Despite these successes, issues arose related to racial violence and other hate crimes. The United States also dealt with global crises as regional conflicts intensified in Eastern Europe. Thousands of UN forces, including U.S. troops, were involved in successful peacekeeping missions around the world, in places like Cambodia and El Salvador. UN forces were deployed to famine-stricken Somalia and war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina, with varied outcomes.

BiographyUndaunted Courage is a multifaceted work that can fit into various categories. At its core, it narrates the tale of the Lewis and Clark expedition. However, it also serves as a biography of Lewis. Unlike many other authors, Ambrose explores Lewis’ early years and his life following the expedition. While the journey stood as the pinnacle of Lewis’ life, Ambrose illustrates how Lewis’ craving for adventure and the expedition itself impacted him deeply. Prior to embarking on the expedition, Lewis often sought new experiences. He enlisted in the militia and traversed the frontier during his military service. Once the expedition concluded, Lewis found life lacked the excitement he had grown used to. He realized he did not belong in the typical, civilized society. He failed as a governor, and despite earnest attempts, he could not find a wife. Lewis, susceptible to bouts of melancholy and depression, succumbed to alcoholism and likely took his own life just a few years after returning from the expedition. Undaunted Courage also acts as a sort of biography of American expansionism. To this end, Ambrose includes the history of the Lewis and Clark expedition's origins. Jefferson’s interest in exploring North America's western regions dates back to 1750 when his father joined a land company awarded frontier land west of the Appalachian mountains. In the decade after the Revolutionary War ended, Jefferson initiated three out of four plans to explore the West. The successful launch of the Lewis and Clark expedition was the realization of Jefferson’s dreams, fueled significantly by British expansion in the Pacific Northwest.

First-Person Narrative
Ambrose incorporates a first-person narrative by including numerous excerpts from the journals and letters of Lewis and Clark, allowing the leaders to convey their distinct personalities and presence. Shorter quotes are seamlessly integrated into the narrative, enhancing its vividness. Longer excerpts offer deeper insights into what mattered to the leaders and their perspectives on their adventure. These primary sources provide a richer understanding of the leaders' personal reactions to the expedition. From a practical standpoint, they also help historians trace actions and events. The vital importance of such sources is highlighted when Ambrose examines Lewis’ final years. As Lewis did not maintain a journal, significantly less is known about his actions and motivations. There is even an eight-month span of his life that remains a "lost period" to historians.

ImagesUndaunted Courage features maps, illustrations, and excerpts from journal entries, along with Ambrose’s detailed analysis of events. These maps are invaluable for tracking the expedition's route and understanding the vast distances and varied landscapes covered. The illustrations encompass journal pages, artwork, portraits, and artifacts, all of which enrich readers' understanding of the historical period. Journal pages, for instance, reveal the writer's character; several entries highlight Lewis’ sketches of birds and fish he encountered near Fort Clatsop. The artwork depicting American Indians and the western landscape is particularly fascinating, even though these images were created after the expedition. No artists accompanied Lewis and Clark to document the scenes they encountered. The first artist to depict American Indians was George Catlin, who began his journeys through the western territories in 1830.

Early 1800s: In 1803, following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States spans 1,716,003 square miles, reaching across North America to the Rocky Mountains.

Today: The total area of the United States, including Alaska and Hawaii, is 3,717,796 square miles.

Early 1800s: By 1805, the U.S. population is approximately 6.3 million, an increase of 1 million in five years. The western territories experience significant population growth; for example, Louisiana's population rises from 77,000 in 1810 to 153,000 in 1820.

Today: The population of the United States exceeds 270 million.

Early 1800s: In 1803, a war erupts between long-standing rivals France and Great Britain.

Today: France and Great Britain are both part of the European Union (EU), which aims to foster economic and political connections among European nations. In 1999, the EU introduces the "euro" as its shared currency.

Early 1800s: In 1803, large portions of the North American continent remain unexplored and unknown to Americans.

Today: During the 1990s, the United States embarks on a new era of space exploration. The U.S. sends an unmanned probe to Mars, with Pathfinder traversing the Martian surface in 1997, gathering data and transmitting images. In 1999, another spacecraft is launched toward Mars.

Early 1800s: There is limited knowledge about health maintenance and disease prevention. Aspirin has yet to be discovered, although Lewis administers willow bark to his men for toothaches, unknowingly providing aspirin. Lewis also uses mercury to treat syphilis, possibly contributing to early deaths.

Today: Medicine continues to advance. Researchers in biology employ genetic engineering to modify genes, with hopes that such studies will lead to cures for genetic disorders and certain diseases.

Early 1800s: Agriculture is the backbone of the U.S. economy.

Today: By the late 1990s, high-tech industries have created numerous new career opportunities. Significant growth is seen in computer-related sectors, requiring professionals such as computer engineers, support specialists, database administrators, and systems analysts.

Early 1800s: The sole means of communication over long distances is through mail, which is slow and unreliable. Sending mail from the Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi River can take six weeks or more.

Today: People have a variety of communication methods. Nearly all homes have telephones, and an increasing number of households possess personal computers with email capabilities. By 1998, around sixty million Americans use the Internet for information and communication.

An audio version of Undaunted Courage, abridged by Harold Schmidt, was released by Simon & Schuster Audio in 1996.

A video adaptation of Undaunted Courage was created by Dayton Duncan and Ken Burns. Duncan authored the script, while Burns took on the role of director. This production was distributed by Turner Home Entertainment in 1997 and is available through PBS Home Video.

As of March 2001, Ambrose hosts a website at http://www.stephenambrose.com/ featuring both personal and professional details, along with links to additional media resources about Ambrose.

Sources
Carlin, Peter, ‘‘Outward Bound,’’ in People Weekly, Vol. 46, No. 1, July 1, 1996, pp. 101–104.

Dahl, David S., Review in Region, December 1996, available at http://woodrow.mpls.frb.fed.us/pubs/region/reg969h.html (last accessed in March 2001).

Harden, Blaine, ‘‘Where the Wild Things Are,’’ in Washington Post, February 11, 1996, p. X03.

Jones, Malcolm, Jr., Review in Newsweek, Vol. 127, No. 8, February 19, 1996, p. 70.

Miller, Roger, ‘‘Heading West with Meriwether Lewis,’’ found at http://www.bookpage.com/9602bp/nonfiction/undauntedcourage.html (1996).

‘‘Plotting a Continent with Bravery and Optimism,’’ in Christian Science Monitor, April 3, 1996, p. 15.

Pollack, Michael, ‘‘Lewis and Clark’s Trip to Manifest Destiny,’’ in New York Times, November 23, 2000, p. G8.

Raymond, Steve, Review in Seattle Times, March 17, 1996, p. M2.

Review in Kirkus Reviews, December 1, 1995.

Review in Publishers Weekly, Vol. 242, No. 49, December 4, 1995, p. 46.

Taylor, Gilbert, Review in Booklist, Vol. 92, No. 9–10, January 1, 1996, p. 780.

Walker, Dale L., Review in Wild West, Vol. 4, No. 4, December 1996, p. 74.

Weaver, Gregory, ‘‘Corps of Courage,’’ in Indianapolis Star, September 5, 2000, p. D01.

Wick, Daniel, ‘‘The Man Who Mapped the Louisiana Territory,’’ in San Francisco Chronicle, February 25, 1996, p. 3.

Further Reading
Allen, John Logan, Lewis and Clark and the Image of the American Northwest, Dover Publications, 1991. This reprint of the 1975 book Passage Through the Garden examines the concept of North American geography during the Lewis and Clark expedition.

Appelman, Roy, Historic Places Associated with Their Transcontinental Exploration, National Park Service, 1975. The book's first section provides a historical overview of the expedition, while the second section discusses the existing sites along the trail.

Dillon, Richard, Meriwether Lewis: A Biography, National Park Service, 1975. An early biography focused on Meriwether Lewis.

Duncan, Dayton, Lewis and Clark: An Illustrated History, Knopf, 1997. This book serves as a companion to Ken Burns’ documentary Lewis and Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery and includes contributions from Ambrose and other notable writers.

Jackson, Donald, Thomas Jefferson and the Stony Mountains: Exploring the West from Monticello, University of Illinois Press, 1981. This work explores the expedition from Thomas Jefferson’s viewpoint.

Jones, Landon Y., The Essential Lewis and Clark, Ecco Press, 2000. This book features selections from the original 1904–1905 publication of the Lewis and Clark journals.

Ronda, James P., Lewis and Clark Among the Indians, University of Nebraska Press, 1984. Recognized as the definitive work on the expedition’s interactions with native peoples.

Steffen, Jerome O., William Clark: Jeffersonian Man on the Frontier, University of Oklahoma Press, 1977. A biography of William Clark.