Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom’s Cabin, first serialized in 1851, emerged as a powerful antislavery narrative amidst the rising abolitionist movement. Published as a book in 1852, it quickly set sales records despite facing condemnation and censorship, particularly in the Southern United States and several European countries. Over time, perceptions of the novel have shifted, with criticism evolving as societal views on race and representation changed.

The Controversial Impact

At the height of its influence, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was both celebrated and denounced. Southern critics labeled it as deceptive propaganda, while its portrayal of the systemic horrors of slavery resonated with Northern audiences and contributed to the fervor of abolitionist sentiments. The novel's depiction of a "worldwide revolution of enslaved people and exploited workers" alarmed authorities, leading to its ban in the Papal States and censorship in other parts of Europe.

Ongoing Censorship and Criticism

Throughout the 20th century, Uncle Tom’s Cabin continued to spark debate. A 1906 Kentucky law targeted stage adaptations, reflecting ongoing discomfort with its themes. Later, Black Americans criticized the novel for its portrayal of Uncle Tom, leading to attempts to remove it from school curricula. The term "Uncle Tom" evolved into a pejorative epithet for those perceived as betraying their community, highlighting the novel's complex legacy among African Americans.

Biographical and Critical Insights

Numerous biographical works have explored the life and motivations of Harriet Beecher Stowe, shedding light on how her religious beliefs and personal experiences shaped Uncle Tom’s Cabin. John R. Adams' comprehensive analysis delves into the Beecher family dynamics, while Seth Curtis Beach and Charles H. Foster focus on Stowe's Puritan influences. Alice C. Crozier and Thomas F. Gossett examine the cultural and literary context, with Gossett providing a detailed account of the novel's reception across different regions.

Stowe's Literary Legacy

Stowe's legacy extends beyond her contributions to literature; her work as a writer and reformer is explored in biographies by Annie Fields and Joan D. Hedrick. Fields presents a personal perspective through anecdotes, while Hedrick chronicles Stowe's activism and her efforts to substantiate claims with detailed research. These works emphasize Stowe's dual role as an author and social critic, documenting how Uncle Tom’s Cabin remains a pivotal work in discussions of race, literature, and social justice.

In "Uncle Tom's Cabin," the narrative travels through various settings, each contributing to the tapestry of the story's exploration of slavery and freedom. These locations highlight the stark contrast between life in bondage and the quest for liberty, each landscape shaping the experiences and choices of the characters.

Kentucky and the Shelby Farm

In the heart of the south-central United States, Kentucky serves as the initial backdrop for the novel. The state's proximity to the Ohio River makes it a tantalizing gateway to freedom for those enslaved. On the Shelby farm, Tom and Eliza Harris live under the shadow of looming financial woes that force Mr. Shelby to sell them to settle his debts. Despite their relatively humane treatment, the specter of family separation looms large, particularly when Eliza chooses to flee to protect her child, while Tom decides to stay and sacrifice himself. This setting underscores the moral conflict and familial bonds that underpin the narrative.

Ohio River and Ohio

The Ohio River represents a critical boundary between enslavement and liberty, epitomized by Eliza's daring escape across its treacherous ice floes. Her journey to Ohio symbolizes the desperation and resilience of a mother fighting for her child's future. In this free state, the Birds' home and a Quaker settlement offer sanctuary, showcasing models of moral households. Senator Bird, swayed by his wife's ethics, aids Eliza despite his previous support for the Fugitive Slave Law, reinforcing the moral law above political expediency. The Quakers, led by Rachel Halliday, provide a haven where principles and actions align seamlessly.

Mississippi River and New Orleans

The Mississippi River serves as another geographic marker, carrying Tom further from his past life into the hands of Augustine St. Clare. This transition marks a narrative shift as Stowe steps beyond her immediate experience, illustrating a broader spectrum of Southern life. In New Orleans, the St. Clare household, with its eclectic and chaotic style, stands in stark contrast to the ordered simplicity of the Quaker settlement. The lack of a moral anchor within this family highlights the chaos induced by slavery, exacerbated by Marie St. Clare's self-absorption, while Eva and Miss Ophelia strive but struggle to instill moral order.

Red River and the Legree Plantation

The Red River signifies a further descent into darkness as Tom, after St. Clare's death, is sold to Simon Legree and transported to a decrepit Louisiana plantation. The degradation of the plantation mirrors the brutality of slavery, unmasked in its rawest form. Legree's farm, with its boarded windows and neglected state, becomes Tom's final, oppressive home. Here, the memory of Legree's mother is the only faint whisper urging better behavior, yet it's manipulated by Cassy, another enslaved person, to serve her own ends.

Beyond the United States: Lake Huron, Montreal, and Liberia

Lake Huron acts as a natural divider between the United States and Canada, where the Harris family finds true freedom and safety in Montreal, illustrating the failure of the American landscape to provide sanctuary for freed individuals. Ultimately, the Harris family's journey ends in Liberia, a poignant reminder that even in freedom, the shadow of slavery lingers, suggesting that the American continent offers no lasting refuge for those who once lived in chains.

In the mid-nineteenth century, America was a nation divided by contrasting regional identities and ideologies, particularly over the issue of slavery. As the North embraced industrial growth and free labor, the South remained rooted in agrarian economies reliant on enslaved labor. This diverging path led to political and social tensions that found literary and cultural expression, notably through the impactful novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe.

The Fugitive Slave Law

The aftermath of the Mexican War (1846–48) forced the United States to address whether new territories would permit slavery, culminating in the Compromise of 1850. Among its five stipulations, the Fugitive Slave Law starkly curtailed the freedoms of free Black individuals and compelled citizens to assist in the capture of escaped enslaved people. This law enraged Northern abolitionists and inspired Harriet Beecher Stowe to pen her influential novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Through the character of Senator Bird, who grapples with the moral implications of supporting such legislation, Stowe vividly illustrates the law's cruel impact on freedom seekers like Eliza and her family, highlighting their perilous journey toward true liberty in Canada.

Nineteenth-Century Views of Women

During the mid-1800s, American society placed considerable value on the domestic roles of women as housewives and mothers. Women were seen as moral and spiritual guardians responsible for their families' upbringing and were expected to extend this role into the broader community by aiding the less fortunate. The popularity of domestic novels, which often centered on the lives and challenges of housewives, reflected this cultural emphasis on the perceived moral authority of women within the home.

Life in Slavery

Contrary to some perceptions, only about a third of Southern families owned slaves by 1860, with most enslavers holding fewer than twenty individuals. Enslaved people faced severe restrictions, were treated as property, and had no legal rights, including the legal recognition of marriage or family. Despite laws against certain abuses, many endured harsh conditions, including physical and sexual exploitation. To cope, enslaved communities developed their own cultural expressions, such as spirituals and folktales, which fostered resilience and solidarity, as depicted by Stowe in the community life of Uncle Tom and Aunt Chloe.

Christianity in the 1850s

The Second Great Awakening marked a period of intense religious revival in the early 19th century, emphasizing personal faith and social reform. The movement encouraged individuals to seek redemption through Christ and inspired societal improvements, including the abolition of slavery. This wave of evangelical fervor is reflected in the reform movements of the time, underscoring the connection between religious revival and the push for social justice.

Point of View

In Uncle Tom’s Cabin, the omniscient third-person narrative style is pivotal, enabling Harriet Beecher Stowe to weave together the interconnected lives of various characters dispersed across different locations. This all-seeing perspective allows readers to delve into the internal worlds of these characters, understanding their emotions and motivations deeply. Notably, Stowe occasionally transitions into a second-person point of view, a stylistic choice designed to heighten reader engagement during emotionally charged scenes. For example, when Eliza makes her desperate escape with her son Harry, the narrator directly addresses the audience: “If it were your Harry, mother, or your Willie, that were going to be torn away from you by a brutal trader, tomorrow morning... how fast could you walk?” Such direct appeals are instrumental in fostering empathy, especially toward the enslaved Black characters, thus fulfilling the novel’s underlying purpose. The narrative’s omniscience ensures that when readers learn about Tom’s hopeful anticipation of freedom, they feel the full weight of emotions that come with his turbulent journey.

Setting

The setting of Uncle Tom’s Cabin firmly roots the narrative in the antebellum American South, providing a historically accurate backdrop for its antislavery message. Stowe’s novel unfolds primarily in Kentucky and Louisiana, both pivotal slave states during this period. Kentucky’s proximity to the free states across the Ohio River facilitates narratives of escape, as seen in Eliza's flight to freedom. This geographical choice allows Stowe to highlight the cruel realities of the Fugitive Slave Law through the relentless pursuit of freedom seekers by slave hunters. Tom’s sale "down the river" to New Orleans immerses readers in a stark depiction of slavery’s brutality, contrasting his relatively peaceful time with the St. Clares with the oppressive conditions under Simon Legree. For enslaved individuals from the North, being sent "down the river" symbolized an ominous journey into harsher realms of bondage, illustrating the severe and often life-threatening challenges they faced.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin, authored during the tumultuous 1850s, addresses the profound national rift caused by the institution of slavery. The period was marked by the Compromise of 1850, which extended slavery's reach and made it a national concern, compelling Northern citizens to comply with the Fugitive Slave Act, thus creating moral and legal conflicts. Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel is heavily imbued with Christian themes, critiquing slavery as a profound moral failing and urging a religiously inspired abolitionist movement.

Slavery and Compromise

The 1850s saw a nation struggling with the moral and economic implications of slavery, an institution deeply rooted in the nation's fabric, particularly in the South. The ratification of the Constitution in 1789 had already entrenched this system with the infamous “three-fifths” clause, granting disproportionate power to slaveholding states. The Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act further exacerbated tensions by nationalizing slavery, even in states where it had been abolished, forcing citizens to choose between legal obligation and moral righteousness.

Religious Rhetoric and Abolitionism

Stowe's novel is a scathing indictment of the complicity of Christian communities in the perpetuation of slavery. Her narrative is charged with religious rhetoric, depicting slavery as both unchristian and immoral. In Chapter 45, Stowe reveals her awakening to the issue when witnessing "Christian . . . people actually recommending the remanding of escaped fugitives into slavery," a stance she vehemently opposes. She criticizes Christians in the free states, labeling them as "guilty . . . before God" for their role in upholding slavery without the "apology of education or custom."

A Call to Christian Action

Stowe envisions a proactive role for the Christian church in addressing slavery. She advocates for the upliftment of enslaved individuals through education, suggesting that such empowerment is a precursor to helping them migrate to places like Liberia or Canada. Her writing serves as a jeremiad, urging the "Church of Christ" and all Americans to heed the "signs of the times" and reject the status quo of injustice.

Christian Love and Social Transformation

Addressing a Protestant audience, Stowe contrasts the inhumanity of slavery with Christian ethics grounded in universal love, or agape. This principle of love, which demands nothing in return, calls individuals to conscience and responsibility. In her "Concluding Remarks," Stowe declares that no true Christian can abide the horrors of slavery, advocating for a transformation of society through the power of Christian love, thus offering a path to redemption and justice.

Few authors, especially those who were women in the nineteenth century, can claim that their writing altered the trajectory of a nation. However, Harriet Beecher Stowe did just that with her novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Stowe's emotional narrative about the cruelty of slavery and the power of Christian compassion quickly became a bestseller in 1852. Many, including Abraham Lincoln, believe that her antislavery novel played a role in igniting the Civil War. When Lincoln met Stowe in 1862, he remarked, “So you’re the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war!”

1. Investigate mid-nineteenth-century American perspectives on motherhood and domestic roles, and contrast these views with Stowe’s depiction of mothers and motherhood.

2. Examine actual nineteenth-century slave narratives authored by both women and men. How did the experience of slavery differ for each gender?

3. In what ways was slavery woven into the economic fabric of the agrarian antebellum South? Why might enslavers who were sympathetic to the plight of enslaved individuals have refrained from freeing them?

4. Read Stowe’s 1854 work The Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin. In this book, does Stowe address critics' claims that her depiction of slavery is inaccurate? Provide reasons for your answer.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin is widely regarded by critics as a prime example of sentimental fiction, a genre that emerged from the efforts of abolitionists to end slavery. To engage readers' emotions, authors of sentimental novels focused on domestic life and family, experiences that resonated particularly with white Northern women. A central theme in sentimental fiction is extending Christian love to oppressed characters.

In crafting her poignant novel about slavery, Stowe gained insights into the lives of enslaved individuals by conversing with formerly enslaved people and extensively reading, including narratives of enslavement and antislavery literature.

For firsthand accounts of the lives of enslaved individuals, consider reading Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. Published in 1845, Douglass's autobiography details his experiences of enslavement in the American South, the harshness of Christian enslavers, and his journey to freedom after learning to read. Another significant work is Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs, published in 1861. This was the first narrative of enslavement authored by an African American woman. Jacobs highlights the unique challenges faced by enslaved women, including sexual exploitation and the separation of mothers from their children, and makes heartfelt appeals to her white female readers.

To address claims that her portrayal of slavery was exaggerated, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote a companion book to Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Published in 1854, The Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin serves as Stowe’s sourcebook of facts, providing evidence to support her novel. This companion book was intended to convince skeptical readers that the characters and events in Uncle Tom’s Cabin were based on real people and true occurrences within the institution of slavery.

Directed by William Robert Daly, the 1914 silent film adaptation of Uncle Tom’s Cabin featured Mary Eline, Irving Cummings, and Sam Lucas. Notably, Lucas was among the first African American actors to secure a leading role in a motion picture. Another film adaptation, titled Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Onkel Tom’s Hutte), was produced in Yugoslavia in 1969 by Hungarian director Geza von Radvanyi, with John Kitzmiller, O. W. Fischer, Herbert Lom, and Gertraud Mittermayr in the cast.

In 1987, a made-for-television adaptation of Stowe’s novel, directed by Stan Lathan, was released. This version starred Avery Brooks, Kate Burton, Bruce Dern, Paula Kelly, Phylicia Rashad, Kathryn Walker, Edward Woodward, Frank Converse, George Coe, and Albert Hall.

After its initial publication in 1852, Uncle Tom’s Cabin inspired countless stage adaptations worldwide. In 1994, Garland Publishing released a new edition of George L. Aiken and George C. Howard’s six-act musical play, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which was first published by Samuel French in the 1850s.

Sources

Hedrick, Joan D. Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Langston Hughes, introduction to Uncle Tom’s Cabin in Critical Essays on Harriet Beecher Stowe, edited by Elizabeth Ammons, G.K. Hall, 1980, pp. 102–4.

Kenneth S. Lynn, introduction to Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life among the Lowly, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1962, pp. vii–xxiv.

Madeleine B. Stern, “Harriet Beecher Stowe,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 12: American Realists and Naturalists, edited by Donald Pizer and Earl N. Harbert, Gale Research, 1982, pp. 425–33.

Richard Yarborough, “Strategies of Black Characterization in Uncle Tom’s Cabin and the Early Afro-American Novel,” in New Essays on Uncle Tom’s Cabin, edited by Eric J. Sundquist, Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp. 45–84.

Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Boston and Cleveland: John P. Jewett & Co., 1852, reprinted, New York: Harper & Row, 1965.

Sundquist, Eric J., ed. New Essays on Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

For Further Study

Nina Baym, et al., eds., The Norton Anthology of American Literature, 4th ed., Vol. 1, Norton, 1994. An anthology featuring Jefferson’s initial draft of the Declaration of Independence, which includes his original denunciation of slavery.

Josephine Donovan, Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Evil, Affliction and Redemptive Love, Twayne, 1991. A comprehensive introduction to the themes and historical backdrop of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, analyzing the text through the lens of the problem of evil.

Ann Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture, Avon, 1978. A seminal study of American culture in Stowe’s time, linking the era’s religiosity to both the abolitionist movement and the marginalization of women.

Thomas F. Gossett, Uncle Tom’s Cabin and American Culture, Southern Methodist University Press, 1985. An exploration of the cultural impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin from the political climate during Stowe’s life to the novel’s reception from 1852 to the present day.

John D. Hedrick, Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life, Oxford University Press, 1994. The latest scholarly biography of Stowe, featuring an extensive bibliography and sixteen pages of photographs.

Theodore R. Hovet, The Master Narrative: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Subversive Story of Master and Slave in Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Dred, University Press of America, 1988. This book connects American slavery to patriarchal themes and concepts of a “fallen world,” placing Uncle Tom’s Cabin within the context of Western patriarchal tradition dating back to Plotinus in the third century.

Mason I. Lowance, Jr., Ellen E. Westbrook, and R. C. De-Prospo, eds., The Stowe Debate: Rhetorical Strategies in Uncle Tom’s Cabin, University of Massachusetts Press, 1994. Examines the three primary debates sparked by Uncle Tom’s Cabin over the years: slavery, critical reception, and theoretical perspectives. Includes numerous insightful articles on topics like race and slavery, domesticity, and sentimentality as rhetorical strategies, as well as various theoretical approaches to the novel.

Moira Davison Reynolds, Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Mid-Nineteenth Century United States, McFarland, 1985. This book offers a detailed account of the political climate that surrounded the release of Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

Harriet Beecher Stowe, The Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Arno Press & New York Times, 1968. Originally published in 1854, The Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin serves as Stowe’s own compilation of factual sources for Uncle Tom’s Cabin. She created this to validate her assertions and to show skeptical readers that all the characters and events in her novel were grounded in real-life people and occurrences related to slavery.

Forrest Wilson, Crusader in Crinoline: The Life of Harriet Beecher Stowe, J. B. Lippincott, 1941. Though an older popularization of Stowe’s life, this book should be supplemented with more recent biographies. Nonetheless, it includes many intriguing photographs and period illustrations.