mistress to both Franz and Tomas. She serves as a foil to define her lovers, yet she remains mysteriously superficial and profoundly unattached. The essence of her character is projected by her fascination with betrayal: She longs to betray everything, even her own betrayals. In the novel, she is the most sophisticated exemplar of “lightness”; she continues her drift westward until she ends up in California, alone, unattached, still living on the surface of things, successful and content with her life “under the sign of lightness.”

The narrator

The narrator, the central presence and voice. The narrator is probably the most engaging character. Whether regarded as the author’s direct voice or as a compelling fictional device, the narrator delivers the rich and paradoxical political, philosophical, and erotic speculations that shape the novel and define each of the characters.

Kundera’s characters play upon the polarities of masculine/feminine, strength/weakness, mind/body, intellectual/emotive, and fidelity/betrayal. They are simultaneously individuals and types. The reader’s knowledge and understanding of their motives, however, are mediated by Kundera’s narrator, who seems more sympathetic to Tereza and her concerns than to those of Tomas. The narrator says that Tomas is a compulsive womanizer, obsessed with discovering that millionth part of each woman that makes her unique. This explanation seems unconvincing, though, for the reader is never allowed inside Tomas’ consciousness to share his perceptions. Franz is little better as a character: the brilliant professor forever seeking vicarious excitement in some political cause.

Kundera’s women are more interesting as characters. Tereza is drawn sympathetically and in depth. Kundera reveals enough about her parents and her childhood through flashbacks to make her behavior quite credible.Her mother is a monster of egotism: selfish, manipulative, and utterly incapable of love. It is not surprising that Tereza is so insecure. Sabina, as well, is a victim of parental abuse. Her father, a puritanical, small-town dignitary, instills in her a distrust of men and an instinct for betrayal as a means of self-preservation. His rigidity, later reinforced by the Czech Communist Party, gives Sabina a lifelong distaste for “The Great March” of artistic or political conformity. Determined to become her own person, she marries unwisely, but her alcoholic actor-husband leaves her, and she is free to develop her talents as an artist. Sabina’s craving for novelty leaves her dissatisfied with Franz, whose bourgeois decency bores her, and she leaves him after he has left his wife, Marie-Claude, for her. Their incompatibility is dramatized by a “Dictionary of Misunderstood Words,” a glossary of the same words with different meanings for each.

Aside from Tereza’s mother, who is unnamed but described in some detail, the other minor characters—Franz’s wife Marie-Claude, Tomas’ first wife, his son Simon, Franz’s daughter Marie-Anne, and his student mistress—remain indistinct. There are also major historical figures in the novel, including Czech prime minister Alexander Dubcek, who provide an important historical counterpoint to the fictional plot.

Characters

In The Unbearable Lightness of Being, Kundera devotes more space to character development than in The Book of Laughter and Forgetting (1978), though each character still tends to be centered around a dominant trait. At the novel's outset and for much of it, Tomas is portrayed as an unrepentant womanizer. Initially, he avoids all responsibility, having severed connections with his ex-wife, his son, and his parents, who have disowned him. He doesn't even allow his romantic partners to stay overnight. However, when he encounters Tereza in a rural town and she later arrives at his apartment, they make love, and she falls ill with the flu, he finds it difficult to send her away. After her recovery, she remains with him, and eventually, they marry.

Despite their marriage, Tomas continues his womanizing, causing Tereza to suffer from jealous nightmares. Eventually, unable to endure it any longer, Tereza leaves him in Switzerland and returns to Czechoslovakia. Tomas's choice to follow her marks perhaps the first step in his journey toward accepting responsibility, although his career as a surgeon and the Oedipus article suggest a strong foundation for this transformation all along. Another significant turning point is his refusal to retract the article; from that moment, each loss of status appears to contribute to Tomas's development into a more complete person. Tereza, who is as devotedly loving as Tamina in The Book of Laughter and Forgetting, blames herself for taking away Tomas's "mission" as a surgeon. However, by the novel's end, Tomas, having abandoned his womanizing ways, declares that he is joyfully "free" from all missions.

In contrast to Tomas, there is Sabina, one of his mistresses. Like Tomas at the novel's start, she has cut all meaningful ties, but unlike him, she remains unchanged. A young, brilliant Swiss professor named Franz leaves his wife for her, but Sabina eventually leaves him. Her increasing alienation and moral decline are signified by her continual moves westward — to Paris, then to America where she becomes involved with a wealthy elderly man until his death, and finally to California, where she arranges to have her ashes scattered to the wind after her death: "Tereza and Tomas had died under the sign of weight. She wanted to die under the sign of lightness."

Social Concerns

The Unbearable Lightness of Being addresses similar societal issues as The Book of Laughter and Forgetting—specifically, life under Czechoslovakian communism—and makes comparable general observations. However, The Unbearable Lightness of Being adopts a slightly different approach by concentrating on a smaller number of characters and following their journeys throughout the story. The novel centers on three primary Czech characters: Tomas, Tereza, and Sabina. All three characters leave the country following the Russian invasion in 1968, but Tomas and Tereza eventually return. Tomas, who is largely apolitical and a prominent surgeon, becomes a target of the secret police due to an article he wrote about Oedipus Rex during the liberal Dubcek era. His refusal to retract the article results in a gradual descent through the professional ranks—from a surgeon to a physician in a rural clinic, then to a window washer, and finally to a truck driver on a collective farm.

Themes

Although it contains political insights, The Unbearable Lightness of Being is more philosophical than The Book of Laughter and Forgetting. The philosophical themes are introduced early, exploring Nietzsche's concept of eternal return (which is dismissed), Parmenides' theory of opposites (such as weight and lightness), and the German saying Einmal ist keinmal ("what happens but once . . . might as well not have happened at all"). These reflections lead to the startling conclusion that "in this world everything is pardoned in advance and therefore everything cynically permitted," resulting in "the unbearable lightness of being." While Kundera seems to accept this "profound moral perversity," the book is actually dedicated to disproving this notion.

From an existential perspective, "the unbearable lightness of being" suggests an even greater weight of moral responsibility. Events that occur only once demand careful decision-making, with consequences that must be faced. Tomas does not fully comprehend his choice to leave Switzerland, where he holds a prestigious position, to follow his wife Tereza back to Czechoslovakia; instead, he links it to a theme from Beethoven's music, Es muss sein ("it must be so"). Nonetheless, even seemingly fated decisions require acceptance and responsibility. This is illustrated through Tomas's interpretation of Oedipus Rex. Oedipus takes responsibility for his actions, regardless of his innocent intentions, whereas the Czech legal authorities lack integrity because they refuse to acknowledge their involvement in Stalinist terror. Throughout the novel, Tomas develops a sense of moral integrity.

Techniques

Kundera blends different styles in The Unbearable Lightness of Being, much like he did in The Book of Laughter and Forgetting. However, The Unbearable Lightness of Being leans more towards a traditional novel. The storyline and character development generally follow conventional paths, even though it occasionally strays from a linear timeline. Notably, about two-thirds into the book, Kundera reveals that Tomas and Tereza perish in an accident due to brake failure on Tomas's truck. This revelation casts the pair in a gentler light as the novel concludes.

Literary Precedents

With its traditional narrative style, The Unbearable Lightness of Being evokes many novels from the 19th century. A fitting comparison is Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina (1873-1877), which is explicitly referenced in The Unbearable Lightness of Being. Tereza reads Anna Karenina when she first meets Tomas, they name their dog Karenin, and the final section of the novel is titled "Karenin's Smile."

Adaptations

The Unbearable Lightness of Being was adapted into a film of the same name in 1988, directed by Philip Kaufman. The movie stars Daniel Day-Lewis as Tomas, Juliette Binoche as Tereza, and Lena Olin as Sabina. The film was a box office success, largely due to its intense eroticism and Olin's performance. It remains faithful to the novel's essence and atmosphere, especially in depicting the Prague Spring and its aftermath. However, the film does streamline the novel's timeline into a more coherent sequence, which somewhat diminishes Kundera's innovative narrative techniques. Also, the absence of direct author commentary is notable, but the film is still worth watching.

Ideas for Group Discussions

The Unbearable Lightness of Being can spark engaging discussions, provided its explicit eroticism is addressed openly. Topics of interest might include its depiction of sexual norms, the tension between desire and marriage, gender roles, and the themes of loyalty and betrayal. Additionally, the political themes in the novel remain relevant even after the fall of Communist regimes in Eastern Europe, as Kundera's questions go beyond geopolitical limits and resonate in our current context.

1. How does Karenin’s story avoid becoming overly sentimental, thus avoiding another instance of kitsch?

2. What roles and interpretations does photography have in the novel? Why does Tereza choose this profession, and how does it distinguish her from Sabina, who is a painter?

3. Is Kundera's critique of kitsch relevant to modern American culture, and in what ways?

4. Why does Tomas steadfastly refuse to retract his article on Oedipus Rex? If his intention is to oppose the Communist government, why does he also decline to join a solidarity statement with other censored intellectuals?

5. Are the concepts of "lightness" and "weight" relevant in our personal lives and cultures? Identify some examples where these principles are evident.

6. How might modern American feminism perceive Tomas's behavior as a "womanizer," and Kundera's differentiation between the epic and lyric womanizer? Does Kundera's portrayal of Tomas suggest a subtle critique of feminism?

7. What role does Kundera's inclusion of a dictionary of key terms play? Does it enhance the narrative or simply disrupt its flow?

8. Why does Tomas go back to Prague and return to Tereza? Is this decision driven by moral conviction, or is it merely an act of sentimentality?

Franz

Franz is a professor residing in Geneva, Switzerland. He enters the narrative in the third section, introduced as Sabina's lover for nine months. Franz is married to Marie-Claude, a woman he does not love but wed due to her deep affection for him. He also has a daughter named Marie-Anne, who is very much like her mother. For twenty-three years, Franz has been a faithful, though unhappy, husband. However, he finds himself in love with Sabina. During their affair, he has taken care to keep his lover and wife apart, avoiding intimacy with Sabina in Geneva and instead taking her on trips worldwide. Despite this, he remains uncertain about Sabina and often fears she will leave him. As the narrator notes, for Franz, love "meant a longing to put himself at the mercy of his partner... love meant the constant expectation of a blow."

Although Franz is physically robust, he is emotionally vulnerable. He never imposes demands on Sabina or uses his strength against her, choosing instead to be submissive. Sabina does not find this trait appealing.

A pivotal moment arises when Marie-Claude hosts a gallery opening and invites Sabina, whose artwork is displayed there. After Marie-Claude insults Sabina by calling her pendant ugly, Franz decides to confess the affair to Marie-Claude to defend Sabina. This plan backfires: Marie-Claude expels Franz from the house but refuses to divorce him, and Sabina leaves him.

This situation highlights a key aspect of Franz's character: his inability to comprehend women, especially Sabina. The chapters featuring Franz and Sabina are structured like a dictionary, offering definitions of "misunderstood words." Ultimately, it becomes evident that Franz is more enamored with the idea of Sabina than with Sabina herself, making her physical absence less troubling than expected. For the rest of his life, Franz imagines Sabina watching over him, though he never sees her again.

In the sixth section of the book, Franz decides to join a group of Western intellectuals traveling to Thailand to protest human rights abuses in Cambodia. Tragically, he is killed by muggers on the streets of Thailand, further illustrating his fundamental misunderstanding of people and reality. The final irony is that "in death, Franz at last belonged to his wife... Marie-Claude took care of everything: she organized the funeral, sent out the announcements, bought the wreaths, and had a black dress made—a wedding dress, in reality. Yes, a husband's funeral is a wife's true wedding! The climax of her life's work! The reward for her suffering!" Franz's death highlights the futility of his existence.

Sabina

Sabina is a Czech painter and one of Tomas's numerous lovers. Educated under the Communist regime, she is an artist who despises kitsch, noise, social realism, and music. Through Sabina, Kundera explores how politics affect art and music, as well as the experiences of political exiles.

Ironically, Sabina connects with all the other characters, despite being the most aloof and detached among them. Her affair with Tomas in Prague exemplifies the type of relationship she desires—one based on physical intimacy and friendship, free from emotional ties. When Sabina and Tomas reunite in Switzerland to make love, it marks their final encounter. She wears only her lingerie and a bowler hat that once belonged to her grandfather, a man she never actually met. This scene is charged both emotionally and sexually, touching Sabina in a way she wishes to avoid.

Similarly, Sabina enjoys her time with Franz as long as it involves minimal commitment. The moment Franz confesses to his wife about the affair with Sabina, she vanishes from his life. However, Sabina's interaction with Tereza is perhaps the book's most sexually and emotionally intense scene. Tereza visits Sabina's studio to take photographs and suggests capturing Sabina in the nude. Despite her sexual freedom, Sabina hesitates at first. She drinks three glasses of wine and talks about her grandfather's bowler hat before Tereza, distancing herself by looking through the camera lens, prompts Sabina to open her robe. As they photograph each other, they become captivated by the moment. Sabina, "almost frightened by the enchantment and eager to dispel it ... bursts into loud laughter." The encounter with Tereza is filled with emotional tension, something Sabina refuses to acknowledge.

Tereza

Tereza is a young woman from a small village who, through a series of coincidences, becomes Tomas's lover and eventually his wife. Her father was a political prisoner who died in jail, leaving Tereza to be raised by her vulgar, overbearing mother, who took great pleasure in humiliating her. This mistreatment caused Tereza to experience a profound separation between her body and soul; she rejects her physical self as much as possible. She offers her soul to Tomas, symbolizing the weight of love she imposes on him.

Tereza harbors an intense love for Tomas and, despite being unable to endure his infidelity, finds herself incapable of leaving him. Her role in the narrative appears to be one of enduring hardship. Her dreams are especially tormenting. In one such dream, she is forced to walk naked around a swimming pool alongside other unclothed women. Tomas, seated on a high chair, shoots any woman failing to execute proper knee bends. Later in the story, Tereza dreams that Tomas takes her to Petrin Hill, where he arranges for armed men to shoot her if she so desires. When Tereza confides these dreams to Tomas, he becomes increasingly entangled with her. Although they often make each other miserable throughout the story, they remain inseparable.

A pivotal moment for Tereza occurs when she arrives home from work one evening and detects the scent of another woman on her sleeping husband. In a rebellious act, she engages in a one-time sexual encounter with an engineer. She later suspects this engineer is actually a secret police agent, sent to frame her for prostitution. Following this incident, Tereza attempts to convince Tomas to relocate to a collective farm in the countryside. When Tomas inquires about what has been troubling her in recent months, she reveals the scent emanating from his hair. This disclosure persuades Tomas that they should indeed move to the countryside. Ultimately, Tereza achieves her desire—Tomas's loyalty.

Tomas

Tomas is a prominent Czech surgeon residing in Prague. Besides being an accomplished surgeon, Tomas is also a habitual womanizer. He engages in numerous affairs and has devised a set of rules to ensure these relationships remain purely physical.

During a conference in a small town, Tomas encounters Tereza, a barmaid. He suggests that she should visit him in Prague, which she eventually does. When Tereza falls ill with influenza during her stay, Tomas realizes he is in love with her. Yet, he finds these emotions "inexplicable." He questions whether this feeling is genuine love or "simply the hysteria of a man who, aware deep down of his inaptitude for love, [feels] the self-deluding need to simulate it?" Although Tomas cannot answer this question, he feels compelled to marry Tereza. However, marriage does not prevent him from engaging in affairs with various women. For Tomas, love and sexual relations are not necessarily intertwined. He understands this when he notices how much he enjoys sleeping beside Tereza, something he never does with his other lovers. Tomas concludes, "Making love with a woman and sleeping with a woman are two separate passions, not merely different but opposite. Love does not make itself felt in the desire for copulation (a desire that extends to an infinite number of women) but in the desire for shared sleep (a desire limited to one woman)."

After the Soviet occupation of Prague, Tomas's career takes a downturn. When given the chance to move to Switzerland, he accepts. In Switzerland, he reconnects with Sabina, a former lover who has also relocated there. However, after only a few months, Tereza decides to return to Prague. Tomas follows her a few days later, but upon his return, his career deteriorates further. Under the new government's oppressive regime, he loses his job and starts working as a window washer. Even in this role, he continues to find opportunities for romantic encounters with many women.

Tomas is quite an enigma. Despite deeply loving Tereza, he cannot stop his infidelity, even though it causes her pain. He believes the notion of es muss sein (it must be) applies both to his marriage and his affairs. It is only when confronted by a peculiar odor in his hair that he realizes he must abandon his other relationships. He decides to move to the countryside with Tereza.

Among all the characters in the book, Tomas experiences the most significant transformation. Just hours before his death, he shares a dance with Tereza and expresses that he has found happiness with her in the countryside, a contentment that had seemed elusive throughout much of his life.