witnessed significant advancements in medical science, including a better understanding of physiology and the introduction of vaccines and other preventive measures. However, these methods were not always universally adopted, and medicine had yet to become a standardized, regulated practice. The effectiveness of medical treatment largely depended on the practitioner's individual expertise and knowledge. People had little hope for a cure if they fell ill. Consequently, individuals took various precautions to avoid even minor illnesses, which could escalate into more serious conditions. Between 1830 and 1850, Europeans were particularly cautious due to cholera epidemics in both London and Paris. In the narrative, the governess reprimands Miles for being outside at midnight, warning him that he has "caught your death in the night air!" Similarly, when the governess and Mrs. Grose discover that Flora has gone outside without informing them, Mrs. Grose is appalled: "Without a hat?" Wearing a hat to cover one's head, where much body heat is lost, was a common preventive measure to avoid falling ill.

The Governess
The concept of hiring a live-in woman to educate children—especially girls—originated in the Middle Ages but gained significant popularity towards the end of the eighteenth century as the middle class in England expanded both in wealth and numbers. However, the idealized image of the English governess, familiar to readers of nineteenth-century literature such as Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre (1847), Anne Brontë's Agnes Grey (1847), and various works by James, has perpetuated the notion that governesses were a staple in every affluent household during that era. In truth, only a small fraction of working women were employed as governesses. For families that did hire a governess, her role was to assist the mother—or the father, if the mother was deceased—in the intellectual and moral upbringing of the children. Similar to the governess in the story who is "young, untried," and "taking service for the first time in the schoolroom," most governesses lacked any formal training.

Setting
Bly, described as a "country home, an old family place" in the countryside, serves as an ideal setting for a ghost story. When the governess first arrives, she is struck by the "greatness that made it a different affair from my own scant home." During her initial tour with Mrs. Grose, the governess observes the "empty chambers and dull corridors ... crooked staircases," and a "square tower that made me dizzy." These descriptions fit the archetype of the eerie old house perfectly. Additionally, the estate features expansive grounds, including a lake and various pathways, all exuding the same eerie atmosphere as the garden, the "lonely place" where the governess first encounters the ghost of Peter Quint.

Narration
Though the main narrative is penned by the governess, it remains unclear when she documented her story. She mentions she has "not seen Bly since the day I left it" and speculates how it might appear to her "older and more informed eyes" if she were to revisit. Douglas notes that she was his sister's governess "long ago, and this episode was long before." Despite this, the governess wrote the story and sent Douglas "the pages in question before she died." As mentioned in the introduction, Douglas then reads these pages to the narrator and other guests. Before Douglas's passing, he entrusts the manuscript to the narrator, who now relays it to the reader. Since the story is presented as a precise transcript, it is assumed to be exactly as the governess wrote it.

Because the story is conveyed through a first-person narrative, the reader is asked to trust the governess's account. However, she exhibits characteristics of a classic unreliable narrator, raising doubts about her credibility. For instance, the time between Miles's death and her recording of the story is ambiguous. Additionally, since the governess perceives things others do not and questions her own sanity, the reader may suspect her perspective is flawed. At one point, she confesses to "retrace today the strange steps of my obsession." This admission that her struggle between good and evil became an "obsession" suggests her ability to narrate the story accurately may be compromised.

Allegory
The theme of good versus evil employs a specific narrative technique known as allegory. An allegory introduces a secondary layer of meaning that influences every aspect of the story. In this context, the allegory represents the battle between God and the Devil, with the governess embodying divine or God-like attributes, while the ghosts, and sometimes the children, embody evil or Devil-like traits. The governess frequently invokes God's name. Upon first seeing her primary adversary, the ghost of Peter Quint, she tells Mrs. Grose, "God help me if I know what he is!" Shortly after this, Mrs. Grose comments, "It's time we should be at church." Church, a traditional symbol of God, becomes a source of strength for the governess as she feels she is losing the fight for Miles's soul. While heading to church with the boy, she thinks of "the almost spiritual help of the hassock on which I might bend my knees."

She also observes about Miles, "I seemed literally to be running a race with some confusion to which he was about to reduce me." The governess occasionally depicts Miles with demon-like terms, suggesting his "wickedness" led to his expulsion from school. The allegorical significance of the ghosts is equally clear. Throughout the story, the governess uses terms associated with evil to describe them. When Quint makes his final appearance, she notes "his white face of damnation." She also describes the moment she pulls Miles close to protect him as "like fighting with a demon for a human soul," highlighting the classic struggle between God and Satan for human souls. Ultimately, when the governess presses Miles to reveal who "he" is, Miles responds, "Peter Quint—you Devil!"

More akin to a novella in length, The Turn of the Screw consists of a concise prologue and twenty-four brief chapters. The prologue serves as a "frame," setting up the context in which the story unfolds and offering a few intriguing introductory remarks. Douglas claims that the manuscript he is about to read is the most terrifying ghost story he has ever encountered. He reveals that the governess was in love with her employer and enigmatically states that "the story won't tell . . . not in any vulgar way," piquing the readers' interest and preparing them for a captivating experience. Once Douglas begins reading, he refrains from adding any commentary or interpretation, leaving the governess as the primary source of the reader's understanding of the setting, characters, and events.

In The Turn of the Screw, the author seems to shift all narrative responsibility to his fictional narrator, who is the sole observer of the events and the only source of their authenticity. James described this narrative technique as "indirect vision," meaning a story told without a broad, authoritative perspective to guide the reader, allowing access only through the viewpoint of a limited and fallible observer. He employed this method in many of his works, but nowhere as experimentally as in this story. Here, he places his protagonist-narrator in a situation that is challenging to assess using common logic and provides enough hints to question her reliability without making her seem entirely untrustworthy. Consequently, she can be seen as either a credible narrator recounting a haunting or an unreliable one describing her hallucinations.

Structurally, the governess's narrative recounts the events in a straightforward chronological order, with occasional comments highlighting how certain incidents gain significance over time and numerous information gaps that are only partially or never filled as the story progresses. This approach ensures suspense and keeps the reader vigilant for clues that support or refute the governess's theories. The narrative is organized into short episodes that alternate between moments of high tension when the governess sees the apparitions and periods of relative calm when she reflects on the events and observes the children for signs of change. A significant portion of the story focuses on her climactic confrontations with Miss Jessel by the lake and with Quint through the bedroom window, where she exhibits a clarity and determination that are difficult to definitively categorize as those of either a heroine or a madwoman. In the end, she believes she has saved Flora, but what ultimately happens to Miles's soul remains a mystery.

Due to its pervasive ambiguity, the story narrated by the governess can attract both readers seeking a chilling ghost story and those interested in a more nuanced psychological analysis. For the former, it will be perceived as an example of the "marvelous," a genre that clearly immerses the reader in the supernatural realm. For the latter, it will be seen as part of the "uncanny," a genre where seemingly supernatural occurrences are ultimately explained by natural or psychological causes. However, it can also be appreciated as a masterpiece of the "fantastic," a mode of fiction that blurs the line between the possible and the impossible, leaving both the reader and often the protagonist without a definitive explanation for the story's bizarre events. The "fantastic" element in The Turn of the Screw comes from its oscillation between compelling evidence of the ghosts' existence as specters and equally convincing indications that they are merely neurotic projections. It maintains uncertainty about the children's true nature and deliberately avoids providing a final clarification regarding the governess's mental state. In essence, there is no revelatory conclusion, no clear definition of the malevolent force, nor a denial of its existence, and no escape from the dark corridors into which the governess has drawn us.

In January 1895, Edward White Benson, the Archbishop of Canterbury, shared a story with Henry James about young children living in an old country house haunted by the ghosts of their former servants. This brief tale sparked the creation of The Turn of the Screw, one of James's most widely read and debated works. It might initially seem surprising that a sophisticated writer known for social and psychological realism would be drawn to the supernatural, and that the idea for his most famous ghost story would come from the Archbishop of Canterbury. However, belief in ghostly apparitions was widespread in the latter half of the nineteenth century, and many intellectuals of the time were fascinated by the study of ghosts and psychic phenomena. The Society for Psychical Research, which included Henry's brother, the philosopher and psychologist William James, as a prominent member, was established in 1882. Its publications likely influenced numerous authors of ghost stories, including Henry James. His portrayal of the ghosts in this tale aligns with the most contemporary ideas about their appearance and behavior.

James may have also drawn inspiration from late nineteenth-century research on psychological disorders conducted in America and Europe. Specifically, his portrayal of the protagonist can be linked to contemporary beliefs about female hysteria, which was thought to affect some sensitive and intelligent women due to a profound conflict between their natural sexual desires and the strict behavioral codes of Victorian society. Furthermore, by centering his story on a governess, James might have aimed to highlight the issue of class in Victorian society. Like his protagonist, the typical Victorian governess came from a respectable social background but had limited financial means. She adhered to the values and manners of the genteel middle class and thus expected to be treated as a "lady," yet she needed a paid job, much like working-class women. This often left her emotionally isolated from both the other servants and her employers. If she sought emotional connection with her pupils' family, she risked being rejected as inferior, while forming bonds with a servant could further diminish her social standing. These challenges, stemming from the governess's ambiguous position in a strictly hierarchical society, are subtly addressed in James's story.

1850s: Cholera devastates London and Paris, claiming numerous lives and putting many on high alert against illness.

1890s: Improved public hygiene in industrial towns has started to curtail the spread of cholera and other infectious diseases. Additionally, vaccines and x-rays are introduced.

Today: With the advent of modern medicine, antibiotics and other treatments are developed to fight diseases, causing bacteria to evolve and necessitating the creation of new medications.

1850s: Typically, middle-class women are expected to focus on childbearing and child-rearing. For unmarried women, working as a governess in another household, helping to raise other people's children, is a socially acceptable role.

1890s: Women increasingly enter the workforce and spend less of their lives on childbearing and child-rearing. Consequently, their life expectancy rises.

Today: Women have a multitude of choices regarding work and family. Some opt not to have children, while others stay home to care for their children and manage the household. Many pursue demanding careers alongside men, and some successfully balance both a career and family life.

1850s: Industrialization shifts the focus of business to cities, prompting many English gentlemen to maintain city residences for managing their affairs, leaving hired staff to oversee their country estates.

1890s: The rapid spread of industrialization in both England and America has widened the economic gap. The wealthy live in opulent estates, while many of the poor are confined to overcrowded urban slums.

Today: Technology is integral to many people's daily lives. Those who own and invest in these technologies become the new affluent class, while the poor continue to face increasing economic hardship.

In its distinctiveness, The Turn of the Screw deserves to be ranked alongside other nineteenth-century gothic and supernatural classics such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1866), Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), and Bram Stoker's Dracula (1897).

When it comes to the narrative, a comparison can be drawn with Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre (1847), which is mentioned in the text. In both stories, a governess travels to a secluded estate to care for orphaned children, encounters a widowed housekeeper harboring a dark secret, and falls in love with the seldom-seen master of the house. The contrasting personalities and destinies of the heroines imply that James was both parodying and paying homage to Bronte's novel.

James's expertise in the supernatural genre, which reached its pinnacle in The Turn of the Screw, is apparent throughout his career. From one of his earliest short stories, "A Passionate Pilgrim" (1871), to the unfinished novel The Sense of the Past (1917) that he was working on at the time of his death, his talent shines. Other significant supernatural tales include "The Last of the Valerii" (1874), "Sir Edmund Orme" (1891), "Owen Wingrave" (1892), "The Real Right Thing" (1899), "The Great Good Place" (1900), and "The Jolly Corner" (1908).

These stories do not feature the traditional elements of sinister settings, terrifying villains, dreadful ghosts, and defenseless pure heroines. Instead, James preferred to evoke a sense of terror by "having the strange and sinister embroidered on the very type of the normal and easy." He focused on the psychology of his characters as they confronted bizarre events, which often revealed hidden truths about themselves.

Another dimension of The Turn of the Screw becomes prominent when it is connected to a series of works James produced during the 1890s, which centered on innocent children exposed to corrupting influences. Among these works are What Maisie Knew (1897) and The Awkward Age (1899), where young girls face the risk of moral corruption by their elders. Additionally, "The Pupil" (1891) focuses on the emotional suffering of a boy trapped in a selfish and uncaring family.

In 1961, Jack Clayton directed a highly successful film adaptation of James's story for Twentieth-Century Fox, titled The Innocents. The screenplay, written by William Archibald and Truman Capote, remains largely true to the original narrative. Deborah Kerr, playing the governess, imbues her character with profound sensitivity and adeptly conveys her complex reactions to seemingly supernatural events that sometimes lead her to question her own sanity. Martin Stephens and Pamela Franklin, portraying the two children, strike a perfect balance of innocence and deceit. The interior settings evoke a sense of claustrophobia, while the visual splendor of the outdoor scenes heightens the impact of the horror that encroaches upon them. Supported by a suitably eerie soundtrack, Clayton sustains an atmosphere of uncertainty and brooding malevolence until the very end, where the governess is seen weeping desperately, either for herself or for the children.

Several other adaptations also deserve recognition. The renowned British composer Benjamin Britten, with a libretto by Myfanwy Piper, crafted an opera based on James's story that was well-received at its premiere in Venice in 1954. This opera, considered one of Britten's significant achievements, creates an intensely emotional atmosphere and musically conveys a disturbing sense of psychological ambiguity. In 1959, during the golden age of television drama, John Frankenheimer directed Ingrid Bergman and Lynn Redgrave in a mesmerizing adaptation of the story for the series "Ford Startime." A more recent film adaptation is The Turn of the Screw, directed by Rusty Lemorande for Electric Pictures-Michael White productions in 1992. This version stars Patsy Kensit and also features Stephane Audran, Julian Sands, and Marianne Faithfull. The film's repeated focus on dolls and puppets, along with its abundance of geometric shapes, gives it a fascinatingly surrealistic visual quality and effectively underscores a sense of gothic obsession.

The Turn of the Screw was adapted into a television movie and broadcast by NBC in 1959. Directed by John Frankenheimer, the production starred Ingrid Bergman as the governess, Isobel Elsom as Mrs. Grose, Paul Stevens I as Peter Quint, and Laurinda Barrett as Miss Jessel.

In 1974, The Turn of the Screw was again adapted as a television movie, this time by ABC. Directed by Dan Curtis, the film featured Lynn Redgrave as the governess, Megs Jenkins as Mrs. Grose, James Laurenson as Peter Quint, and Kathryn Leigh Scott as Miss Jessel. Notably, the ending diverges significantly from James's original text. This version is available on video from Artisan Entertainment.

In 1954, the renowned English composer Benjamin Britten adapted The Turn of the Screw into an opera with a prologue and two acts. The opera was filmed in Czechoslovakia in 1982 by Pgd/Philips, directed by Petr Weigl. The film features Czech actors lip-synching to the musical parts, sung by others, including Helen Donath as the governess, Ava June as Mrs. Grose, Robert Tear as Peter Quint, and Heather Harper as Miss Jessel. Filmed in naturalistic settings rather than on a stage, this opera is not widely available but is worth seeking out.

In 1990, The Turn of the Screw was adapted into a cable television movie co-produced by Shelley Duvall. Directed by Graeme Clifford, this version stars Amy Irving as the governess and is available on video from Warner Home Video.

A film adaptation of The Turn of the Screw was released in 1992. Directed by Rusty Lemorande, the film features Patsy Kensit as the governess and is available on video from Artisan Entertainment.

In 1999, The Turn of the Screw was adapted into a Masterpiece Theatre movie by Anchor Bay Entertainment. Directed by Ben Bolt II, the film stars Jodhi May as the governess, Pam Ferris as Mrs. Grose, Jason Salkey as Peter Quint, Caroline Pegg as Miss Jessel, and Colin Firth as the governess's employer—whose appearance differs from James's original story.

In 1987, The Turn of the Screw and Daisy Miller, two of Henry James's short novels, were adapted into an abridged audiocassette by Dercum Press Audio.

In 1995, Naxos Audio Books released an abridged audiocassette and audio compact disc adaptation of The Turn of the Screw, narrated by Emma Fielding and Dermot Kerrigan.

In 1994, Blackstone Audio Books adapted The Turn of the Screw and Other Short Works into an audiocassette, read by Pat Bottino.

Sources
Beidler, Peter G., Ghosts, Demons, and Henry James, University of Missouri Press, 1989, p. 237.

Edel, Leon, “The Point of View," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, pp. 228, 233, originally published in The Psychological Novel: 1900-1950, 1955, pp. 56-68.

Gale, Robert L., "Henry James," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 12: Realists and Naturalists, edited by Donald Pizer, Gale Research, 1982, pp. 297-326.

Goddard, Harold C., "A Pre-Freudian Reading of The Turn of the Screw," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, pp. 186-87, originally published in Nineteenth-Century Fiction, Vol. XII, June 1957, pp. 1-36.

Heilman, Robert, "The Turn of the Screw as Poem," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, p. 215, originally published in University of Kansas City Review, Summer 1948, pp. 277-89.

Hoffman, Charles G., The Short Novels of Henry James, Bookman Associates, 1957, p. 71.

Kirby, David, "Foreword," in Ghosts, Demons, and Henry James, University of Missouri Press, 1989, p. ix.

"Most Hopelessly Evil Story," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, p. 175, originally published in Independent, January 5, 1899, p. 73.

"Mr. James's New Book," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, pp. 172-73, originally published in Bookman, Vol. LX, November 1898, p. 54.

Phelps, William Lyon, "The 'Iron Scot' Stenographer," in "Henry James," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, p. 178, originally published in Yale Review, Vol. V, July 1916, p. 794.

“The Recent Work of Henry James," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, p. 174, originally published in the Critic, Vol. XXXIII, December 1898, pp. 523-24.

“The Story * * * Is Distinctly Repulsive," in The Turn of the Screw: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism, edited by Robert Kimbrough, W. W. Norton & Company, 1966, pp. 171—72, originally published in Outlook, Vol. LX, October 29, 1898, p. 537.

Wilson, Edmund, “The Ambiguity of Henry James," in The Question of Henry James: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by F. W. Dupee, Allan Wingate, 1947, p. 172, originally published in Hound & Horn, Vol. VII, April-May 1934, p. 385.

Further Reading
Griffin, Susan M., ed., Henry James Goes to the Movies, University Press of Kentucky, 2001.
In this varied collection of essays, Griffin compiles works from fifteen renowned Jamesian scholars. The contributors explore why James has captivated numerous filmmakers and examine the mutual influence between James and the film industry. The book also includes a comprehensive filmography and a bibliography focused on James and cinema.

Lewis, R. W. B., The Jameses: A Family Narrative, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1991.
This distinctive group biography presents portraits of Henry James's intellectually distinguished family, beginning with his grandfather William in 1789 Ireland and concluding with the author's death in 1916. Through astute business practices, William amassed one of the largest fortunes in 19th-century America, significantly impacting the lives of his descendants.

McGurl, Mark, The Novel Art: Elevations of American Fiction after Henry James, Princeton University Press, 2001.
At one time, the concept of an art novel did not exist in America—until Henry James emerged. In his book, McGurl examines how James's novels influenced the shift in literary thought, leading to the proliferation of the modern art novel, and traces the evolution of this concept following James's contributions.

Pippin, Robert B., Henry James and Modern Moral Life, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
In this critical analysis of James's major works, Pippin contends that the author was driven by moral considerations and that this moral perspective is woven throughout his stories. Written in an accessible and nontechnical style, Pippin provides fresh interpretations of many of James's works, including The Turn of the Screw.

Pool, Daniel, What Jane Austen Ate and Charles Dickens Knew: From Fox Hunting to Whist—The Facts of Daily Life in Nineteenth-Century England, Touchstone Books, 1994.
This thoroughly informative reader's guide is ideal for those interested in the language, culture, and customs of 19th-century England. It serves as an essential companion to the fiction of James, Austen, Dickens, and other authors of the period whose narratives are set in England.