T.S. Eliot's journey through the literary world has left a lasting impact on the landscape of modern poetry, seen through his innovative use of voices, fragments, and traditional influences. His work is deeply rooted in a blend of personal and historical experiences, drawing on a vast array of literary traditions to craft a poetic universe that challenges readers to explore layers of meaning. Eliot's poetry is characterized by a unique interplay between tradition and individuality, shaping a legacy that continues to captivate and inspire.

Voices and Fragments in Eliot’s Poetry

Central to Eliot’s poetic method is the use of voices and fragments to articulate themes, a technique emblematic in The Waste Land. This approach is evident in the poem's closing line: "These fragments I have shored against my ruins," which serves as a key to understanding Eliot's broader oeuvre. The fragments, rich with allusion, are culled from Eliot's extensive literary background and personal experiences, traversing his life from St. Louis to Harvard, and across the cultural landscapes of Paris and London.

Eliot's poetry often features voices emerging from a tapestry of literary, cultural, and religious traditions. These voices, however, are not bound to a singular identity; they mirror the fragmentation and uncertainty of self-knowledge. Through these expressions, Eliot aims to resonate with readers, sharing the enigmatic nature of collective human experiences and emotions.

“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”

"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" marks Eliot's foray into modernist poetry, characterized by a dramatic monologue influenced by French Symbolist poet Jules Laforgue. The poem presents a landscape of introspection, where the narrator grapples with identity and the complexities of erotic encounters. Prufrock's reflections embody a divided self, struggling for understanding in a surreal modern world.

The poem begins with an epigraph from Dante’s Inferno, setting the stage for Prufrock’s incongruent "love song." Like Dante’s Guido, Prufrock addresses an unseen audience, revealing his thoughts and fears without consequence. His journey is marked by indecision, caught between desires for transformation and fears of rejection and acceptance.

“Gerontion”

Eliot’s "Gerontion" continues the monologue style found in earlier works, using allusive language to explore themes of aridity and historical inadequacies. The poem’s narrator speaks from a place of desolation, reflecting on personal and historical fragments in a quest for meaning in a world overshadowed by the past. The tension between memory and desire underscores the futility of action within a fragmented existence.

In "Gerontion," Eliot crafts a collage of voices and images that foreshadow techniques used in The Waste Land. The narrator’s quest for meaning becomes central, highlighting the challenges of understanding human experience.

The Waste Land

The Waste Land stands as Eliot’s most intricate work, a tapestry of voices and allusions reflecting post-war disillusionment. The poem, structured in five interconnected sections, explores facets of modernity and cultural decay. Eliot’s use of literary fragments, foreign phrases, and allusions creates a deeply engaging, albeit challenging, reading experience.

The introduction of Tiresias serves as a unifying figure, merging the diverse voices and perspectives within the text. Through Tiresias’s eyes, the poem delves into sexual disorder, spiritual desolation, and the poet’s compositional process. The fragmented structure mirrors a shattered world, revealing glimmers of meaning and redemption amid chaos.

“The Hollow Men”

In "The Hollow Men," Eliot revisits themes of spiritual emptiness and despair, drawing from The Waste Land and Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. The poem depicts a chorus of voices and images, painting a world where hope and meaning are elusive. Eliot's evocative language captures the hollow men’s existential void, emphasizing their struggle for fulfillment and purpose.

The poem’s structure reinforces a sense of fragmentation and disconnection, with each section offering a window into the hollow men’s world. Eliot’s use of epigraphs and allusions enriches the text, inviting readers to engage with its deeper themes and meanings.

Ash Wednesday and Four Quartets

With Ash Wednesday, Eliot transitions into a personal exploration of faith and spirituality. The poem reflects his conversion to Anglicanism, using symbolic language to convey tensions between flesh and spirit. Through prayers and meditations, the speaker seeks conversion and redemption, navigating belief and doubt.

Four Quartets culminates Eliot’s poetic journey, offering a mature reflection on time, memory, and the pursuit of spiritual and artistic wholeness. Each quartet adopts a musical structure, exploring themes of temporal and spiritual continuity. The work embodies Eliot’s evolving understanding of tradition and the individual's place within it, affirming the unity of artistic and spiritual endeavors.

The Role of Tradition and Influence

Eliot’s critical essays, notably “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” underscore his belief in the importance of literary tradition and the poet's role as a conduit for collective cultural heritage. His emphasis on art's impersonality challenges readers to focus on the work itself rather than the poet’s life. Eliot’s insights into the objective correlative and the dissociation of sensibility have significantly shaped modern literary criticism, influencing generations of poets and scholars.

Through his essays and poetry, Eliot redefined the interplay between tradition and innovation, demonstrating how the past informs and transforms contemporary art. This dynamic is evident in his own work, as Eliot draws from a spectrum of influences to craft a distinctive and lasting poetic voice.

Legacy and Impact

T.S. Eliot’s poetry and criticism have indelibly marked modern literature, steering the course of twentieth-century poetic expression. His masterful use of language, allusion, and voice continues to captivate readers, offering insight into the complexities of human experience. As a poet, critic, and dramatist, Eliot’s influence reaches beyond his own works, inspiring writers to explore new dimensions in the art of poetry.

The Renaissance and English Writers

The Renaissance was a magnificent and sweeping cultural upheaval that painted Europe with the colors of artistic and literary rebirth. Although its roots took hold in 14th-century Italy, it was not until the reign of Elizabeth I, spanning from 1558 to 1603, that its blooms unfurled fully in English literature. During this era, poetry and drama ascended to new heights of elegance and depth, driven by luminaries like Edmund Spenser and Philip Sidney, who sparked a poetic revolution. Meanwhile, Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd laid the groundwork for the dramatic verse form, which would later achieve unparalleled glory in the works of William Shakespeare.

The advent of printing technology heralded an era of accessibility, allowing lyric poetry to transcend the bounds of the court and reach all societal strata. In the bustling theaters along London's South Bank, audiences from all walks of life were mesmerized by plays that weaved iambic pentameter—a rhythmic dance of ten syllable lines—into narratives rich with the tapestry of human emotion.
As the Elizabethan era gave way to the rule of James I of Scotland, the literary world continued its rapid evolution. Poets began to cluster into two prominent schools of thought: the "Sons of Ben," who emulated Ben Jonson's pursuit of clarity and precision, and the "metaphysical poets," led by figures like John Donne, who crafted intricate and sometimes audacious comparisons. By the 1650s, John Milton's prowess in linguistic manipulation heralded the dawn of the Restoration period in 1660.

Victorian England

The Victorian era, an epoch immediately preceding Eliot's own, wielded profound influence over the literary world encapsulated in Selected Essays, 1917-1932. This period was molded by three monumental forces: the relentless march of the Industrial Revolution, the sprawling reach of the British Empire, and an intense intellectual wave that championed moral introspection. These dynamics gave rise to a generation of writers, particularly novelists, who crafted "realist" fiction to mirror the era's social realities, often infusing their narratives with incisive moral critiques of societal and political matters.

Yet, amid the Victorian ethos, a burgeoning counterculture simmered, ready to erupt by the 1890s. Critics like Walter Pater delivered impassioned rebuttals to the era's stalwarts, such as Matthew Arnold, fueling fierce debates. Eliot, however, contended that beneath their contentious surface, Pater and Arnold shared kindred philosophical roots. Despite this, the fabric of Victorian values remained largely intact until the seismic shifts of the early 20th-century modernist movement.

Modernism

Modernism, a literary revolution that paralleled the cataclysm of World War I, shattered longstanding conventions and ushered in a new era of thought. Many modernist writers, seeking to articulate their visions in fresh and unconventional ways, drew inspiration from diverse movements like postimpressionism—which simplified visual forms—and naturalism, which portrayed life's harsh struggles. In fiction, James Joyce's exploration of multiple perspectives, culminating in sudden moments of revelation or "epiphanies," epitomized modernism's spirit. In poetry, modernism was deeply influenced by T.S. Eliot, whose works, such as "The Waste Land," encapsulated the spiritual desolation of the age.

T.S. Eliot, with Ezra Pound as his ally, stood as a towering patriarch within modernism. His theories, which navigated the delicate balance between innovation and tradition, guided the movement's core philosophy, striving to forge a new yet classical artistic language. Selected Essays, 1917-1932 represented Eliot's quest to rally artists around a shared aesthetic vision. The effort, however, was only partially successful; despite Eliot's authoritative tone that assumed a symbiotic dialogue with a cadre of critics and writers, modernism was far from monolithic. Authors ventured into distinct experimental territories, forging paths that diverged from Eliot's classically infused approach. Yet, regardless of their direction, Eliot's visionary aesthetic left an indelible mark on all.

By the time Selected Essays, 1917-1932 emerged in 1932, Eliot had cemented his status as a formidable critic. Although some regarded Eliot, an American, as an intrusive voice dictating English literary thought, and figures like Delmore Schwartz criticized his imposing presence in "The Literary Dictatorship of T. S. Eliot," his ideas remained undeniably transformative. Richard Shusterman, in his introduction to "T. S. Eliot and the Philosophy of Criticism," underscores the magnitude of Eliot's impact, asserting that, "Whatever one thinks of the merit of Eliot's critical thought, its enormous influence on twentieth-century critical theory and practice cannot be denied."

Contemporary critiques of Eliot resonate with these sentiments. Writers such as Jean-Michel Rabaté, in "Tradition and T. S. Eliot," explore innovative interpretations of Eliot's vision of an ever-evolving literary past. Anthony Julius, in "T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form," delivers a stinging critique of Eliot's prejudices, arguing that, "Of the many different kinds of anti-Semite, Eliot was the rarest kind: one who was able to place his anti-Semitism at the service of his art." Nonetheless, as Shusterman suggests, even the sharpest critiques of Eliot's judgments serve as "powerful testimony to his lasting significance."

Circuitous Argument

Selected Essays, 1917-1932 embarks on a journey of nuanced and intricate discourse, aptly described as "circuitous," embodying a meandering and sometimes indirect approach. For those delving into Eliot's work without a deep-seated literary foundation in English literature, these essays can present a formidable challenge. The labyrinth of literary references, intertwined with the intricate arguments discreetly embedded within, contributes to the complexity. It is only upon immersing oneself in the entirety of Selected Essays, 1917-1932 that Eliot's grand theoretical vision begins to crystallize. The essays pursue a winding path towards articulating a comprehensive, overarching argument.

This complexity does not equate to ambiguity. As critic John Chalker elucidates in his essay "Authority and Personality in Eliot's Criticism": "Most of the Selected Essays were book reviews; yet, because of the precision with which he has established his theory, Eliot is able to present a continuing argument." Eliot's literary theory often appears self-contradictory, with numerous instances of overt contradictions (refer to "Christianity" above). Nevertheless, despite its indirect methodology, the collection manifests as a thorough and nuanced argument, drawing from the vast expanse of literary history to substantiate its theory.

The cornerstone of Eliot's roundabout argument regarding the purpose and significance of literature is introduced in section I. However, the succinct and lucid definitions of art in the initial essays do not encapsulate the gradually unfurling theory. "A Dialogue on Dramatic Poetry" emerges as a more fitting embodiment of the work's argumentative stratagem, with its digressions and diverse unresolved perspectives echoing the intricate and evolving theory Eliot constructs. Indeed, his circuitous argumentative style complements the subtle, meandering literary theory.

Rhetoric

As Eliot commences section 2 by positing that "rhetoric" does not inherently signify inferior writing, he subtly defends an element intrinsic to his own stylistic choices. "Rhetoric" encompasses the art of skillfully manipulating language, often imbued with grandiose and artificial nuances, to fortify argumentation. Eliot's sweeping generalizations and enigmatic allusions stand as potent stylistic devices. Chalker notes, "What strikes one particularly about [the early essays] is their strongly rhetorical manner. The tone is immediately authoritative and magisterial."

Assuming roles as both innovator and, as critic Delmore Schwartz dubs him in T. S. Eliot, Critical Assessments, a "literary dictator," Eliot crafts a profoundly influential literary theory. Although he seeks to distance himself from Matthew Arnold, whose varied viewpoints shaped the dominant aesthetic sensibilities of his era, Eliot unmistakably places himself in a parallel position. His rhetorical style is pivotal to this process; through it, he transcends the role of a mere critic wielding an opinion, stepping into the shoes of an authority. The presence of an orthodox authority is crucial to Eliot's theory—this embodies the "outer voice" of "the function of criticism"—and Eliot reinforces his capacity to fulfill this role with the rhetorical voice permeating his essays.

T. S. Eliot's formative years were a tapestry woven with the threads of his diverse reading habits, which laid the foundation for his extraordinary literary career. Immersed in a wide array of literature, Eliot absorbed the influences that would later manifest in his poetry. His exploration of classical texts, combined with contemporary works, equipped him with a unique perspective, enabling him to craft poems that resonated with complexity and depth.

In examining Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," one notices a stark departure from the dramatic monologues of Robert Browning and his predecessors. Eliot's portrayal of Prufrock is marked by a profound internal struggle and existential angst that is absent in earlier works. This introspective nature of his character allows for a more nuanced exploration of the human psyche, setting Eliot apart from his poetic forebears.

Eliot’s essay "Tradition and the Individual Talent" underscores his belief in the symbiotic relationship between tradition and innovation. The keywords of "tradition" and "individual" govern the essay’s thesis, highlighting how a writer must engage with the past to contribute something meaningful to the present. This balance of reverence and originality is crucial to understanding Eliot’s approach to poetry.

For readers approaching Eliot's work with a pre-World War I poetry background, grappling with "The Waste Land" requires an adjustment. The poem's fragmented structure and allusive content demand an appreciation of modernist sensibilities. Familiarity with its historical and literary references enhances comprehension, allowing the reader to navigate its complex landscape.

"The Waste Land" itself skirts the edge of becoming a scholarly wasteland, as its dense intertextuality and myriad references challenge even the most diligent readers. However, this very complexity is integral to its brilliance, inviting an active engagement with its myriad layers of meaning.

After the groundbreaking impact of "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" and "The Waste Land," Eliot's "Four Quartets" left some readers yearning for the earlier, raw intensity of his work. The meditative quality of "Four Quartets" delves into spiritual and philosophical themes, which may not resonate as profoundly with those captivated by the visceral immediacy of his earlier poems.

Despite this, for readers less inclined towards Eliot's religious beliefs, his later religious poetry retains an allure. Its lyrical beauty and exploration of universal themes offer a compelling invitation to contemplate the spiritual dimensions of human experience, transcending personal convictions to explore the shared human quest for meaning.

T. S. Eliot's contribution to poetic tradition is both transformative and distinctive, particularly evident in works like “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.” In this poem, Eliot introduces a protagonist who defies the romantic archetype typical of conventional love songs. Instead of a confident lover, J. Alfred Prufrock is fraught with insecurity and self-doubt, which is vividly captured through his introspective monologue. The imagery within Prufrock’s thoughts powerfully conveys this insecurity; for instance, his fixation on “the eyes” that scrutinize him and his recurring question, “Do I dare?” highlight his paralyzing fear of judgment and inadequacy.

In Eliot's magnum opus, The Waste Land, themes of despair and fragmentation are intricately woven through the poem's five parts. These themes reflect the disillusionment of post-war Europe, as Eliot crafts a narrative that shifts through various voices and settings to depict a civilization in decay. The poem's structure itself mirrors the chaos it describes, employing a collage of cultural and historical references to underscore its thematic concerns.

Eliot’s poetry is marked by a musical quality, utilizing rhythm and sound in innovative ways. He often draws on musical conventions, such as varying tempo and tonal shifts, to enhance the emotional resonance of his work. This musicality is not merely ornamental but serves to deepen the reader’s engagement with the text's underlying themes.

Despite Eliot's theory of the impersonality of poetry, his works can be read as a kind of spiritual autobiography. Through his exploration of themes like faith, doubt, and redemption, Eliot reflects his own spiritual journey. This personal resonance is subtly embedded within his broader philosophical inquiries, allowing readers to glimpse the poet’s inner life.

The assertion that Murder in the Cathedral is “more choric than dramatic” suggests that its strength lies in its choral elements, which echo Greek tragedy. The chorus in Eliot’s play serves as a moral commentator, providing a collective voice that reflects on the events and themes, thereby enhancing the play’s meditative quality.

When contrasting Eliot with William Faulkner, particularly in their use of Christian symbols and allusions, a divergence in attitudes is apparent. Eliot often approached Christian elements with a sense of reverence and inquiry, seeking to reconcile modernity with spiritual tradition. Faulkner, on the other hand, frequently used Christian motifs to highlight the contradictions and moral complexities within the human experience, reflecting a more critical stance.

1590s: The dawn of the British Empire unfurls with the tides of destiny. The vanquishing of the Spanish Armada in 1588 clears the vast oceans for British traders and adventurers, even as nascent racial ideas begin to weave through the tapestry of future colonial expansion.

1920s: The British Empire remains a formidable force, with imperialist ideology deeply embedded into the societal fabric, glorifying British cultural dominance.

Today: The British Empire lies in ruins, and the public now casts a critical eye on the bygone era of cultural superiority, viewing it with a newfound skepticism.

1590s: Under the reign of Elizabeth I, religious tolerance glimmers more brightly than under her predecessor. Despite this, every British citizen must profess allegiance to the Church of England, though many Puritans and Catholics secretly hold onto their faith. Atheism is both rare and frowned upon.

1920s: The Church of England teeters on the brink of a crisis, with its leaders sharply divided on how to address the waning religious zeal among the populace.

Today: It is acknowledged that some bishops within the Church of England embrace atheism. While a portion of the British public still holds religious beliefs dearly, overall religiosity has markedly declined over the past eight decades.

1590s: English literature blooms like a vibrant garden; however, the esteemed literary world remains dominated by the works of ancient Greek and Roman men.

1920s: The realm of classical English literature stands on a proud, longstanding foundation. Though feminist ideologies are gradually gaining traction, the public seldom challenges the predominantly white, male literary tradition.

Today: English literature now resonates with a symphony of diverse voices. Critics often denounce the historically white-male-centric canon, aiming to spotlight the voices of marginalized writers.

1590s: Theatre reigns supreme as the beloved art form accessible to all, while lyric poetry begins to dance across England, propelled by the newly invented printing press.

1920s: Poetry experiences a renaissance with stylistic innovations, yet the art scene remains largely unchanged from the Victorian era, with the novel reigning as the literary monarch.

Today: Alongside the pulsating beats of popular music, cinema — particularly American films — erupts as a dominant force within England’s artistic landscape.

Sources

Chalker, John, "Authority and Personality in Eliot's Criticism,’’ in T. S. Eliot and the Philosophy of Criticism, edited by Richard Shusterman, Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1988, pp. 195-208.

Eliot, T. S., For Lancelot Andrewes: Essays on Style and Order, Haskell House, 1965.

Hynes, Samuel, ‘‘The Trials of a Christian Critic,’’ in The Literary Criticism of T. S. Eliot, edited by David Newton-de Molina, Athlone Press, 1977, pp. 64-65, 71, 87.

Julius, Anthony, T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form, Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Materer, Timothy, ‘‘T. S. Eliot's Critical Program,’’ in The Cambridge Companion to T. S. Eliot, edited by A. David Moody, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 48-59.

Rabaté, Jean-Michel, ‘‘Tradition and T. S. Eliot,’’ in The Cambridge Companion to T. S. Eliot, edited by A. David Moody, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 210-11.

Schwartz, Delmore, ‘‘The Literary Dictatorship of T. S. Eliot,’’ in T. S. Eliot: Critical Assessments, edited by Graham Clarke, Christopher Helm, 1990, pp. 178-79.

Further Reading

Bradbury, Malcolm, and James McFarlane, Modernism: 1890-1930, Viking Press, 1991.
Bradbury and McFarlane provide an insightful overview of the modernist period, and their book is a clear and readable way to begin understanding Eliot's era.

Gordon, Lyndall, T. S. Eliot: An Imperfect Life, Vintage, 1998.
Gordon provides an interesting and comprehensive biography of Eliot that includes a way to think about his poetry and prose.

Martin, Graham, Eliot in Perspective, Macmillan and Co., 1970.
This collection of essays represents an important anthology of views about Eliot from a symposium shortly after his death. It provides a useful overview of the author's impact as perceived after his illustrious career came to an end.

Moody, David A., ed., The Cambridge Companion to T. S. Eliot, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
The variety of essays in this book provide a good overview of modern critical stances on Eliot's works.
It is a good place to begin an in-depth analysis of various themes in Selected Essays.