St. Petersburg

St. Petersburg. Fictional Missouri village on the west bank of the Mississippi River in and around which the entire novel is set. The village is modeled on the real, and somewhat larger, Hannibal, Missouri, in which Twain himself lived as a boy. Like Hannibal, it has a wooded promontory on its north side and a huge limestone cave to its south. Tom Sawyer lives near its center in a two-story house that closely resembles Twain’s own home of the 1840’s. However, the fictional St. Petersburg also has elements of the tiny inland village of Florida, Missouri, where Twain was born and spent most of his summers while growing up, and thus evokes an even more rustic flavor than a real riverfront village might have had.

Seen through Tom’s eyes, St. Petersburg is a world in itself, an epitome of positive nineteenth century small-town American values that offers almost everything that a boy coming of age could want: rugged sports, Fourth of July picnics, itinerant entertainers, romance, imaginary adventures, and even genuine life-and-death adventures. A mostly sunny place, St. Petersburg reflects Twain’s cheerful nostalgia for his childhood haunts, which he regarded as a “paradise” for boys—hence the name “St. Petersburg,” after the gatekeeper to Heaven. Although it appears generally safer and more comfortable than its historical counterpart, it also has an ominous dark side, symbolized by the lurking presence of the murderous Injun Joe, a haunted house, the danger of drowning in the river, and recurrent epidemics. A striking false note in the St. Petersburg of Tom Sawyer, however, is the near invisibility of African American slavery, which was a brutal fact of everyday life in both Twain’s Hannibal and the St. Petersburg of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Tom Sawyer’s sequel.

*Missouri

*Missouri. State in which St. Petersburg appears to be located. A frontier state at the time of Twain’s youth, Missouri represents a remote western outpost of American civilization in Tom Sawyer. Tom reads enough to be aware of the outside world, but the Missouri in which he lives is so remote from the rest of the United States that a senator who visits his village is looked upon as something akin to a god.

*Mississippi River

*Mississippi River. North America’s mightiest river, the Mississippi plays a less important role in Tom Sawyer than it does in Huckleberry Finn, but its presence is nonetheless felt throughout. It represents a possible avenue of escape to the outside world—as when Tom and his friends take a raft to the river’s Jackson’s Island to become pirates—and a force that swallows up drowning victims.

Cardiff Hill

Cardiff Hill. Promontory on the north side of St. Petersburg modeled closely on Hannibal’s real Holliday’s Hill (now usually called “Cardiff” itself), which rises three hundred feet above the river. Described as a faraway and “Delectable Land, dreamy, reposeful and inviting,” it is the place to which Tom usually flees to evade responsibility by playing make-believe games. However, it is also the site of the haunted house and is a place menaced by Injun Joe—both reminders that perhaps no place in St. Petersburg is completely safe.

McDougal’s Cave

McDougal’s Cave. Limestone cavern several miles south of St. Petersburg modeled on a huge cave that Twain explored as a youth. The fictional cave is even larger and provides an apt setting for the novel’s dramatic climax, in which Tom and Becky Thatcher get lost in the pitch-black cave. After a terrifying near-encounter with Injun Joe—who uses the cave as a hideout—Tom faces an apparently hopeless situation. However, he performs his greatest act of heroism by leading Becky to safety, and his emergence from the cave symbolizes his final coming of age.

The Gilded Age
Mark Twain's 1873 novel, The Gilded Age, co-written with his Hartford neighbor Charles Dudley Warner, coined the term for the era characterized by materialistic excess and cynical political corruption that began with the Grant administration in 1869 and continued through the 1870s and beyond. To be gilded means to be covered in gold, so the phrase "The Gilded Age" directly refers to the lavish lifestyles and jaded attitudes of America's wealthy during this period. The publication of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer during the Gilded Age offers a nostalgic glimpse into a simpler, less expansionist, and less industrialized era of American history.

Expansion was a significant theme in American society following the Civil War. By the war's end in 1865, the United States had grown larger, more powerful, and wealthier than ever before, continuing to expand. Post-war Americans exhibited a changed behavior and self-perception: collectively, they had greater energy, ambition, and a heightened sense of potential. The American economy was becoming increasingly industrialized. The construction of the transcontinental railroad, the influx of European immigrants into cities, westward expansion, and new farming technologies that enhanced agricultural productivity all contributed to this growth. The rapidly increasing population created a large labor force, and labor unions were emerging. The growth of industry, fueled by the war and the demand for supplies it generated, created immense wealth for many Americans. Influential businessmen like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and J. P. Morgan built their companies—U.S. Steel, Standard Oil, and Morgan Bank, respectively—into multimillion-dollar enterprises, earning the label "robber barons" from their critics. The very wealthy gathered in summer vacation colonies like Newport, Rhode Island, where they constructed grand summer "cottages," which were often opulent mansions. During this period, money and power were closely linked, and some of the rich and powerful engaged in political corruption. At that time, U.S. senators were elected by state legislators rather than by the public, and it was common for legislators to accept bribes to elect a wealthy individual's preferred senator.

However, not all Americans during this era were affluent or had the right to vote. Many remained disenfranchised and impoverished. Women still lacked suffrage, despite the ongoing women's suffrage movement. Black Americans were also denied the right to vote, and starting at the end of Reconstruction in the 1870s, Jim Crow laws were enacted by Southern states to enforce segregation and suppress black citizens. The Ku Klux Klan emerged during this period, aiming to terrorize and subjugate Southern blacks through violence and intimidation. Additionally, the U.S. Army's primary adversary at the time was Native Americans, who were being forcibly relocated to reservations. Thus, while the Gilded Age, as it is now known, focused on controlling the populace and exploiting land and resources to expand American power and culture, many Americans remained powerless.

American Literature of the 1870s
Following the Civil War, American literature began to reflect a new sense of nationalism and diversity. Realism became the dominant literary trend, portraying ordinary people in their daily lives. The three major literary figures of the last quarter of the nineteenth century—Mark Twain, Henry James, and William Dean Howells—were instrumental in bringing realism to the forefront of American literature. In the 1870s alone, Twain published The Gilded Age (1873) and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), along with numerous shorter works. James released his first two popular and successful novels, The American (1877) and Daisy Miller (1878). Howells, while publishing several novels during the 1870s, found greater success as the influential editor of the Atlantic Monthly, the leading literary magazine of the time. He was a friend and editor to both Twain and James, whose works differed greatly from each other.

Twain's work from this period gained him widespread popularity, characterized by its humor and focus on characters who were typically unsophisticated and outside the Eastern establishment. In contrast, James's work, which never enjoyed widespread popularity, subtly examined the social norms shaping the lives of the wealthy, educated, and cultured Americans. Howells recognized the brilliance in both authors and their works, helping to guide them in their literary careers.

Although Twain and James were the most notable and influential authors of their era, the 1870s also saw the rise of numerous other writers and literary styles. The country's expansionist spirit was mirrored by the emergence of regional, or "local color," writers who depicted the unique aspects of their rapidly growing locales. This form of realism, known as local color writing, aimed to capture and preserve the small-town traditions that were being endangered by industrialization.

By the 1870s, authors like Bret Harte, Joel Chandler Harris, and Sarah Orne Jewett had begun publishing stories set in the West, the South, and New England, respectively. Over the next ten to twenty years, writers such as Kate Chopin, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Charles W. Chesnutt, and Hamlin Garland would contribute their regional perspectives, covering New Orleans, New England, the South, and the Midwest.

Point of View
The novel employs a third-person, limited omniscient narration, with Tom Sawyer as the focal point. This means the story revolves around Tom's world, narrated by someone who understands the motivations and emotions of certain characters. This perspective garners the reader's amused admiration for an unlikely hero. Tom is a mischievous orphan who disregards school, church, and other social conventions, preferring to imagine himself as a pirate or robber. He often sneaks out at midnight for secret adventures with his friends in places like cemeteries and frequently possesses odd items like dead cats. Tom's character realistically depicts a young boy constantly in trouble, testing the patience of the adults around him while also making them smile. The novel's point of view makes Tom endearing by revealing his feelings of guilt, sorrow, or bravery. An objective narration without insight into his mind might portray him as merely naughty and tiresome. However, glimpses into his often noble intentions humanize him: he is not a bad boy, just a highly imaginative one.

Setting
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer takes place in the 1840s, primarily in the fictional village of St. Petersburg, Missouri, where everyone knows each other, and the residents are unsophisticated. When Judge Thatcher, the county judge, visits the village church during a Sunday service, the children are captivated, impressed that he has come from "Constantinople, twelve miles away—so he had traveled, and seen the world." Despite their lack of worldly experience, the people of St. Petersburg strive to maintain "civilized" practices, such as having their children memorize Scripture and recite poems and other readings at school on Examination Evening. The village adults look out for one another's children: when Tom and Becky are found to be lost in the cave, the entire town joins the search effort.

St. Petersburg is a genuine community. Even the threat of evil, embodied by Injun Joe, is countered by the human impulse to help others. For instance, Huck overcomes his fear of Injun Joe and seeks help from the Welshman to save the Widow Douglas, and the Welshman willingly comes to her aid. In this safe environment, Tom Sawyer feels secure in his human connections while also enjoying the freedom to let his imagination roam. St. Petersburg mirrors Twain's own childhood home of Hannibal, Missouri. Like Hannibal, St. Petersburg is located along the Mississippi River, a source of transportation, beauty, and power. The river's proximity to St. Petersburg enables the boys' pirate adventure and serves as a reminder of the vast world beyond their small village.

Realism
Realism focuses on depicting characters and situations that seem to be taken from real life. In the nineteenth century, this often meant featuring ordinary people and settings that were far from refined. Although The Adventures of Tom Sawyer generally presents a somewhat romanticized view of childhood—filled with freedom and imaginative escapades—most of the children in the story are not idealized. Tom and his friends get dirty, spit, sneak around behind adults' backs, and carry dead cats. Tom, despite his charm and appeal, lies to Aunt Polly, shows off to attract Becky Thatcher's attention, scratches himself when his clothes itch, and tricks his friends into doing his chores. In essence, he is human, with flaws and weaknesses. Twain's portrayal of both Tom's endearing and frustrating traits makes him more realistic. Huck Finn is also presented with depth, adding to his realism. Though many children in the town romanticize Huck, envying his apparent freedom from rules and constraints, he experiences moments of worry about his social status and wishes he weren't such an outcast. These darker moments contribute to making him more real.

Twain states that the novel aims to entertain "boys and girls" and to "pleasantly remind adults of what they once were themselves." To appeal to such a broad audience, Twain selects a setting that allows for both adventure and nostalgia. The story unfolds in "the poor little shabby village of St. Petersburg," a fictional representation of Hannibal, the Mississippi River town where Twain grew up. In his preface, the author dates the events to "thirty or forty years ago," between 1836 and 1846, the era of his own childhood. Twain also mentions that Huck Finn is "drawn from life," and Tom Sawyer is a realistic, although composite, character based on several boys.

The setting enhances the primary actions and themes of the novel. Institutions such as the home, school, and church establish a social order that Tom disrupts with his pranks. Jackson's Island, where the boys camp and pretend to be pirates, symbolizes the freedom of nature. However, both the town and nature possess darker aspects: the cemetery where the boys witness Dr. Robinson's murder, the "haunted" house where Injun Joe hides, and the cave where Tom and Becky get lost and where Injun Joe meets his end. Tom reaffirms social order when he returns from the island due to homesickness and guilt. He apologizes to his aunt for pretending to have drowned and takes responsibility in the courtroom, another symbol of social order, by revealing the truth about Dr. Robinson's murder. Eventually, Tom and Becky escape the danger of the cave and rejoin the village society.

Similar to The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the characters in Tom Sawyer reflect the attitudes prevalent in the mid-nineteenth century. The stereotypical villain, Injun Joe, is modeled after the frontier image of the violent and vengeful Native American, while black Americans are portrayed through the lens of slave stereotypes. It's important to recognize these elements for both their negative implications and their historical context.

Twain's realistic depiction of his characters' attitudes should not be confused with his own beliefs. The debate surrounding The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has provided considerable evidence of Twain's integrity: he intended much of his writing to expose the contradictions in his characters' beliefs. By viewing society through the eyes of boys, who are considered more innocent than adults, Twain mocks the flaws in adult values and behavior.

1840s: Slavery of Africans was widespread across the Southern states. Enslaved individuals were regarded as their owners' property and had no civil rights: they couldn't vote, marry legally, or own property.

1876: After the Civil War and the abolition of slavery in the United States, the radical Republicans sought to rebuild the South without slavery. This era, known as Reconstruction, concluded in 1876. The civil rights advancements achieved during Reconstruction were lost after President Ulysses S. Grant's administration ended.

Today: African Americans enjoy full civil rights under the U.S. Constitution and hold significant positions in the government, including seats on the Supreme Court, in the Senate, and in the President's Cabinet. Despite these advancements, race relations remain a contentious issue in American society.

1840s: In 1840, Missouri was the farthest western state in the Union. Presidents Polk and Tyler pursued policies to achieve America's "manifest destiny" of expanding to the Pacific Ocean. The war with Mexico led to the annexation of the Southwest. Texas became a state in 1845, and California, almost unknown in 1840, gained statehood in 1850.

1876: Colorado was admitted to the Union. The United States had purchased Alaska in 1872. The West was rapidly being settled, and by 1890, the U.S. government declared the frontier closed.

Today: Alaska and Hawaii joined the Union as the 49th and 50th states in the 1950s. Although the physical boundaries of the United States now seem fixed, there are still discussions about making Puerto Rico the 51st state.

1840s: The United States was just beginning to industrialize. Steam power revolutionized water transportation, transforming rafts into steamboats. Steam was also starting to change land travel with the advent of railroads. Samuel B. Morse's telegraph, a new communication method, first operated successfully in 1844.

1876: Industrialization was reshaping the nation, and the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition celebrated technological advancements. Alexander Graham Bell's telephone was unveiled at the Exhibition. The transcontinental railroad, completed in 1869, had become essential to the industrial economy by 1876.

Today: The information economy has replaced the industrial economy. While railroads were central to the industrial era, computers are now at the heart of the information age. The Internet has created a global communication network, and travel by automobile and airplane has largely supplanted rail travel.

1840s: Between 1840 and 1855, around 3.5 million immigrants arrived in the United States, drawn by the prospects of wealth and freedom. Most immigrants during this period came from Ireland and Germany.

1876: Immigration had significantly impacted the population and the development of American cities by 1876. The nation was on the brink of its largest-ever influx of immigrants, with nine million arriving in the last twenty years of the nineteenth century.

The mid-nineteenth century saw the publication of several books about boys defying traditional society, such as Thomas Bailey Aldrich's Story of a Bad Boy (1869). Although Twain's book is a significant and unique contribution to literature about youth, it still uses some of the "literary" language typical of nineteenth-century fiction. Twain abandons these conventions in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, where he allows the main character to narrate the story.

The novel incorporates many elements typical of adventure stories: villains threaten the innocent, hide treasures in caves, and occupy haunted houses; heroes save defenseless victims, find hidden treasure, and earn recognition from their loved ones and the community. Twain also uses elements of frontier literature, where pranks disrupt church and school life, and the threatening Native American character seeks vengeance.

"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (please refer to the separate entry), written as a sequel to this novel, is often considered a deeper and more impactful work. Both books hold significant positions in American literature. Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn continued to captivate Twain, leading him to feature them in several other lesser-known works such as "Tom Sawyer Abroad" (1894), which is a fantastical adventure in a balloon, and "Tom Sawyer, Detective" (1896), where Tom unravels a murder mystery.

These additional adventures of the boys offer little of literary value or interest to modern readers. Twain also wrote a play based on "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer," and the novel has been adapted into numerous dramatic versions, though none have achieved notable acclaim.

Four films, all titled "Tom Sawyer," have been adapted from the novel: a leisurely 1930 version directed by John Cromwell featuring Jackie Coogan, Mitzi Green, Junior Durkin, and Jackie Searle; a 1973 musical film with songs by Richard M. and Robert B. Sherman, directed by Don Taylor, and starring Johnnie Whitaker, Celeste Holm, Warren Oates, Jeff East, and Jodie Foster; and a 1973 made-for-television movie directed by James Neilson with Josh Albee, Jeff Tyler, Jane Wyatt, Buddy Ebsen, and Vic Morrow. The book has become a staple of American literature and continues to inspire illustrators and television animators.

The most acclaimed film adaptation is the 1938 version directed by Norman Taurog. Tommy Kelly delivers a strong performance as Tom Sawyer, and Victor Jory stands out as Joe. The film also features May Robson, Walter Brennan, and Ann Gillis.

In 1930, Paramount adapted The Adventures of Tom Sawyer into a film titled Tom Sawyer. Directed by John Cromwell, the movie features Jackie Coogan and Mitzi Green.

Another film adaptation of the novel, also named Tom Sawyer, was produced by Selznick International in 1938. Directed by Norman Taurog and starring Walter Brennan and May Robson, this version is available on video and is distributed by Trimark.

In 1939, Paramount released a film adaptation titled Tom Sawyer, Detective. Directed by Louis King, the movie stars Porter Hall, Donald O'Connor, Elisabeth Risdon, and Janet Waldo.

In 1973, United Artists adapted Clemens's novel into a musical film called Tom Sawyer. Directed by Don Taylor, the film stars Johnnie Whitaker, Jodie Foster, Celeste Holm, and Warren Oates. This version, available on video from MGM Home Entertainment, features a musical score by Robert and Richard Sherman and received three Academy Award nominations.

Disney's 1995 adaptation of the novel is titled Tom and Huck. Directed by Peter Hewitt, it stars Jonathan Taylor Thomas as Tom Sawyer and Brad Renfro as Huckleberry Finn. This film is also available on video through Walt Disney Home Video.

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, narrated by Pat Bottino, is available on cassette from Blackstone Audiobooks.

Sources
Frank Baldanza, "Boy Literature," in Mark Twain: An Introduction and Interpretation, edited by John Mahoney, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961, pp. 103-123.

Walter Blair, "Tom Sawyer," in Mark Twain: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Henry Nash Smith, Prentice-Hall, 1963, pp. 64-82.

Shelley Fisher Fishkin, "Excavations," in Lighting Out for the Territory: Reflections on Mark Twain and American Culture, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 92-93.

John C. Gerber, "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer," in Mark Twain, edited by David J. Nordloh, Twayne, 1988, pp. 67-77.

Ronald Gottesman and Arnold Krupat, "American Literature 1865-1914," in The Norton Anthology of American Literature, Vol. 2, 4th edition, Norton, 1994, pp. 1-8.

Granville Hicks, The Great Tradition, Macmillan, 1935, pp. 43-44.

Robert Lacour-Gayet, Everyday Life in the United States before the Civil War, 1830-1860, Unger, 1969, p. 8.

Lewis Leary, Mark Twain, University of Minnesota Press, 1960, pp. 22-24.

Henry Nash Smith, "Introduction," in Mark Twain: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Henry Nash Smith, Prentice-Hall, 1963, pp. 1-12.

For Further Study
Bernard DeVoto, Mark Twain's America, Chautauqua Institution, 1932.
Following the publication of Albert Bigelow Paine's biography of Twain, DeVoto published his book, calling it "an essay in the correction of ideas." This work examines Twain's writings within the framework of his American culture.

William Dean Howells, review in Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 37, May, 1876.
In this enthusiastic review written prior to the novel's American release, Howells praises Clemens' portrayal of the "boy-mind" as particularly excellent.

William Dean Howells, My Mark Twain, Dover, 1997.
Known as "the dean of American letters" during Twain's era, Howells was also Twain's close confidant and editor. This book offers Howells' personal reflections on his friendship with Twain.

Jim Hunter, "Mark Twain and the Boy-Book in 19th-Century America," College English, Vol. 24, 1963.
Hunter delivers an insightful overview of contemporary boys' literature, highlighting the role of the "Bad Boy" character that Clemens adapted for Tom Sawyer.

Justin Kaplan, Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain: A Biography, Simon and Schuster, 1966.
Kaplan's pioneering biography of Twain, published in 1966, utilized previously unavailable materials about Twain's life and work, offering new insights.

Charles A. Norton, Writing Tom Sawyer: The Adventures of a Classic, McFarland and Co., 1983.
Norton explores the novel's creation, suggesting that Clemens' primary motivation was to produce a version of his childhood that would be acceptable to his wife's family.

Dennis Welland, The Life and Times of Mark Twain, Crescent Books, 1991.
This richly illustrated book covers Twain's life and cultural context, organizing information by geographical regions.