The Time Machine went through several versions, beginning with a story titled "The Chronic Argonauts," which Wells published in the Science Schools Journal in 1888. The story reached its definitive form in 1894. A proponent of evolutionary theory and a strong supporter of women's suffrage and workers' rights, Wells was profoundly shaped by his era. During the 1880s and 1890s, Britain's population was rapidly increasing, nearly doubling from 1851 to 1901. The rise of industrialization led to a mass exodus from rural areas, as people moved to cities and industrial towns to work in factories. By the start of the 20th century, over eighty percent of Britain's population lived in urban areas. This shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy meant that England now relied on imports to feed its growing population, and the landed gentry, who had depended on income from renting farmland, had to find new sources of revenue. As an urban resident and a Progressive, Wells was acutely aware of the factory workers' conditions. His depiction of the Eloi and the Morlocks highlights the exploitative relationship between owners and laborers in Victorian England.

Wells's time machine itself was born from an imagination inspired by the remarkable technological advancements of his time, which spurred industrial growth and transformed the workforce. For instance, the typewriter and the telephone were both invented in the 1870s, making office work more efficient—a task that largely fell to women. Other inventions that significantly impacted the daily lives and mindset of Victorians included suspension bridges, the telegraph, subway trains, steamships, buses, automobiles, and electric lights. These innovations reduced the cost of travel and transportation of goods, creating new opportunities for entrepreneurs and workers. Public transportation allowed workers to reside further from urban centers, which were becoming increasingly congested, hazardous, and unsanitary. Moreover, these inventions accelerated the pace of daily life, introducing a sense of urgency previously unknown and contributing to the feeling that the world was rapidly changing.

England marked its domestic achievements in 1887 with Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee and celebrated its global empire in 1897 with the Diamond Jubilee. By the late 1800s, England had dominion over a significant portion of the world's land, including India, extensive regions of Africa and China, Australia, and Canada. Some territories were outright colonies, while others had "dominion" status. The British justified their imperialist policies not merely by citing the military or economic benefits (which were substantial) but by asserting it was their obligation as a superior race to "civilize" so-called primitive peoples who were deemed incapable of self-governance. Rudyard Kipling famously referred to this obligation as "the white man's burden." British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli used Darwin's theories to bolster his arguments for racial superiority. However, as Britain's empire reached its zenith, it began to deteriorate from within. The effort to suppress nationalist movements spreading throughout the colonies strained Britain both economically and politically.

Scientific Romance
Blending elements of fantasy and science fiction, The Time Machine exemplifies the sub-genre known as scientific romance. Wells played a significant role in refining this popular genre, which often sets its narratives in the future and explores the interplay between technology and the future. Unlike realistic fiction, science fiction features characters and settings that are markedly different. For instance, characters like the Eloi and Morlocks would never appear in a story by realist author Ernest Hemingway. Fantasy is another beloved genre, but it doesn't depend on scientific explanations for its events. Instead, fantasy fiction delves into supernatural and non-rational phenomena, which can exist in realistic or imaginary settings. J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings is a well-known example of fantasy fiction. Other notable scientific romances by Wells include The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Invisible Man (1897), and The War of the Worlds (1898).

Narrator
The narrator is the voice through which an author tells a story, shaping the story's point of view. In The Time Machine, Wells employs a clever narrative structure with essentially two narrators. The first is Hillyer, the "true" narrator, who introduces the Time Traveller and the other guests in the initial chapters and concludes the story in the epilogue. The second is the Time Traveller himself, who takes over the narration from the third chapter and vanishes into the future by the twelfth chapter. This narrative technique allows Wells to explore futuristic concepts and convey his views on politics and evolution through the voices of his characters, all within the framework of an adventure tale. This approach makes complex ideas more accessible to readers and lends credibility to the Time Traveller's account, as Hillyer presents the story in the Time Traveller's own words.

Symbolism
Symbols are objects or ideas that represent other concepts or ideas, often carrying multiple meanings. Wells uses symbols to evoke emotions and ideas, weaving together many of the themes in his story. For instance, the Palace of Green Porcelain, a museum housing artifacts from 1890s England, represents home, civilization, and extinction simultaneously for the Time Traveller. Other significant symbols include the White Sphinx, which reflects the spiritual decline of the Eloi-Morlock society, and The Time Machine itself, symbolizing Victorian progress and the dual promise and peril of technology.

The setting of this narrative unfolds in a richly imagined landscape where both time and place collide in intriguing ways. Originally taking root near the Thames River in the suburban district of South Kensington, London, the story begins in 1895. However, the true journey launches beyond the confines of this geography, transporting the reader to the surreal expanse of the far future.

Temporal and Geographical Boundaries

The narrative's geographical dimensions are initially anchored in the small yet significant area near the Thames River. This locale, while familiar and mundane in 1895, becomes extraordinary as the unnamed time traveler uses his machine to propel into the year A.D. 802,701. It is within this future era that society has undergone a dramatic evolution, splitting into two distinct civilizations: the serene, surface-dwelling Eloi and the subterranean, ominous Morlocks.

The Upper World: Eloi's Idyllic Domain

As the time traveler immerses himself in this future world, he frequently notes the changes in the Thames River's course and reflects on nearby landmarks. Yet, his primary focus shifts to the pastoral beauty and seemingly blissful existence of the Eloi. Inhabitants of the upper world, the Eloi live amidst lush landscapes teeming with fruit and flowers, enjoying a life free of pests and other inconveniences. To the traveler, this scene appears to symbolize humanity's triumph over the challenges of his contemporary society.

The Underworld: Morlocks' Shadowy Realm

The sense of utopia is abruptly shattered when the traveler delves into the mysterious well-like entrances scattered across the landscape. These portals lead to the dark, industrial world of the Morlocks, beings who dwell and toil beneath the surface. The traveler’s encounter with the Morlocks is fraught with tension, revealing an unsettling reality hidden beneath the Eloi's apparent paradise.

A Glimpse into Distant Futures

In an attempt to evade the Morlocks' grasp, the traveler journeys thirty million years further into the future. Here, he encounters a world on the brink of decay, a desolate landscape inhabited seemingly by nothing but amphibious creatures. The stark desolation and eerie silence of this future world discourage the traveler from further exploration, prompting him to return to his own time, enriched by the profound experiences of his journey.

The setting, therefore, is a tapestry of the known and unknown, intricately woven with time and space. It serves as both a backdrop and a catalyst for the narrative, inviting the reader to ponder the consequences of societal evolution and the enduring mysteries of time travel.

Wells once remarked that the challenge for a writer of scientific romances is to "trick" the reader into accepting a plausible premise and then craft the story to be as human and realistic as possible, avoiding unnecessary fantastical elements. The humanity of the traveller is particularly evident in his attempts to comprehend the world he discovers and in the scenes where he feels isolated from other humans. Even though readers might find the concept of a "fourth dimension" stretching known scientific facts, the traveller's argument is developed so logically that time travel seems believable.

The journey into the future features some of the story's most vivid descriptions, as the traveller rapidly moves through changing seasons and civilizations. This fleeting vision creates a mix of colors and shapes that not only convey a sense of speed but also prepare the reader for the moment when the traveller is abruptly thrown from his machine into the future world.

Wells effectively manages the frame technique. He allows the traveller's guests to pose questions at the novel's beginning and end, enveloping even this frame with the narrator's combined wonder and belief. This story-within-a-story unfolds as a dramatic monologue, with the time traveller recounting his adventures. Although the central narrative lacks dialogue, the traveller's occasional direct address to his audience adds a personal touch to the lengthy account.

Details such as the traveller's disheveled appearance after his journey, the movements of his housekeeper at the moments of his departure and return, the position of the time machine, geographical references to the Thames River, and the peculiar flowers in his pocket all lend credibility to his story. Despite sections of philosophical commentary, the plot progresses swiftly, intertwining the traveller's interpretations of the future's social and economic world, his hints of upcoming adventures, and his ongoing narrative.

Wells's theories on regressive evolution and his dissatisfaction with the social and economic conditions of his era contribute to the novel's often pessimistic tone. The traveler's philosophical reflections suggest that this bleak vision of the future is not inevitable. The choices available to humans in 1895, and even today, have the potential to alter the future for the better. Wells's disturbing portrayal challenges the complacent belief that "progress" will automatically result in improvement.

The traveler's initial impressions of the future world evolve through his experiences there. He observes the lush vegetation that seems to thrive with minimal effort from the Eloi and concludes that humanity no longer expends energy controlling nature. In Wells's time, people aspired to have pest-free farms and gardens, a dream seemingly realized in the future world. However, the twentieth-century use of pesticides and fertilizers to achieve this dream has led to unexpected toxic side effects. Similarly, Wells's contemporaries desired a life of abundance and ease, but the traveler later realizes that the Eloi's effortless existence likely contributed to the dangerous stagnation that allows the Morlocks to dominate them. The traveler initially believes he has discovered a world without fear, only to learn that fear has intensified and is now concentrated on one threat—the Morlocks.

Throughout the story, the reader is continually reminded of the oppressive conditions and attitudes that create this world of extremes. Wells wrote The Time Machine at the close of the nineteenth century, but nearly a hundred years later, the world still grapples with the conflicts between developed and underdeveloped nations, and between those who live in luxury and those who struggle to survive daily. Wells's message to his contemporaries remains pertinent: oppression and injustice inevitably lead to social and economic turmoil.

1890s: Many nations are engaged in conflicts over contested territories, such as China and Japan, the United States and Spain, and Turkey and Greece.

Today: Many regions and groups are embroiled in territorial disputes, including Palestinians and Israelis, as well as Pakistanis and Indians.

1890s: In 1895, T. H. Huxley, who popularized Darwin's theory of evolution and was a significant mentor and influence on Wells, passes away.

Today: In 2002, Stephen Jay Gould, one of the most prominent advocates of evolutionary theory in the twentieth century, dies.

1890s: Wilhelm Roentgen discovers x-rays and Marconi invents radio telegraphy, both of which significantly transform twentieth-century life.

Today: Ongoing advancements in technology, particularly in computer technology, continue to alter the way millions of people live, work, and entertain themselves.

Among the seven full-length scientific romances penned by Wells, three others nearly matched the popularity of The Time Machine. The Invisible Man narrates the tale of a young man who seeks power through the secret of invisibility, only to find isolation and madness. The novel also explores the violence that unchecked power can incite and the extent to which fear can dominate society.

In War of the Worlds, Wells depicts ordinary individuals thrust into an extraordinary crisis. His Martian invaders come alive in passages brimming with suspense and vivid descriptions, as they unleash terrifying death-rays upon London’s populace. Eventually, after human military defenses fail, simple earth-born microbes defeat the aliens. When this story was broadcast over the radio by Orson Welles in 1938, it seemed so real that it caused panic among many unsuspecting listeners. In The First Men in the Moon, Wells combines a realistic portrayal of two lunar travelers with a sharp sense of humor, a rarity in scientific romances.

The 1960 film adaptation of The Time Machine by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer provides a faithful representation of the plot but portrays the Eloi, especially Weena, as more human than in Wells's original text. Directed by George Pal, the film starred Rod Taylor, Alan Young, Yvette Mimieux, Sebastian Cabot, Tom Helmore, Whit Bissell, and Doris Lloyd.

The Time Machine has been adapted into film three times. The first adaptation came out in 1960, directed by George Pal and featuring Rod Taylor, Alan Young, and Yvette Mimieux. This version is often considered the best of the three. The second adaptation, directed by Henning Schellerup, was released in 1978 and stars John Beck, Priscilla Barnes, and Andrew Duggan. The most recent adaptation, released in 2002, stars Guy Pearce and Jeremy Irons, with Simon Wells as the director. All three films are easily accessible in libraries and major video stores.

In 1997, Simon & Schuster Audioworks released an audiocassette of Star Trek star Leonard Nimoy reading The Time Traveller as part of its Alien Voices Presents Series.

Bergonzi, Bernard. The Early H. G. Wells: A Study of the Scientific Romances. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967. Bergonzi delves into the themes that preoccupied Wells during the creation of The Time Machine.

Hammond, J. R. An H. G. Wells Companion. New York: Harper and Row, 1979. This book provides a comprehensive overview of Wells's background and literary standing, along with brief analyses of each of his scientific romances and novels. It also includes alphabetized guides to characters and locations and an appendix on major film adaptations of Wells's works.

Hillegas, Mark R. The Future as Nightmare: H. G. Wells and the Anti-Utopians. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967. Hillegas examines Wells's anti-utopian themes and traces the impact of Wells's ideas on later futurist writers.

Philmus, Robert M. "The Time Machine." In Survey of Science Fiction Literature, edited by Frank N. Magill, vol. 5. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, 1979. Philmus offers a concise summary of the novel and discusses Wells's "prophetic" vision.

Smith, David C. H. G. Wells: Desperately Mortal: A Biography. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. This in-depth biography by Smith explores the various influences in Wells's life, including people, events, and ideas. While Smith does not provide detailed literary analyses, he discusses the reception of Wells's works and situates them within the context of his life.

Vernier, J. P. "Evolution as a Literary Theme in H. G. Wells's Science Fiction." In H. G. Wells and Modern Science Fiction, edited by Darko Suvin and Robert M. Philmus. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1977. Vernier focuses on Wells's efforts to create "plausible visions" of the future in his science fiction.

Wells, H. G. "On Science Fiction, Utopian Fiction, and Fantasy." In H. G. Wells's Literary Criticism, edited by Patrick Parrinder and Robert Philmus. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1980. The editors summarize Wells's views on "scientific fantasies," including excerpts from his critical commentaries. Each excerpt is introduced with a brief headnote by the editors for context.

Young, Kenneth. H. G. Wells. London: Longman, 1974. Young provides a succinct summary of Wells's life and his works, including fantasy fiction, realistic fiction, and theoretical writings.

Sources:
Asimov, Isaac. Introduction. In Three Novels of the Future, Nelson Doubleday Inc., 1979, pp. vii-xii.

Bergonzi, Bernard. "The Time Machine: An Ironic Myth." In H. G. Wells: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Bernard Bergonzi, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1976, pp. 39-56.

Burnett, John. The Annals of Labour: Autobiographies of British Working Class People, 1820-1920, Indiana University Press, 1974, p. 14.

Costa, Richard Hauer. H. G. Wells, Twayne Publishers, 1967, pp. 31-35.

Philmus, Robert M. "The Logic of 'Prophecy' in Time Machine." In H. G. Wells: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Bernard Bergonzi, Prentice Hall Inc., 1976, pp. 56-69.

Pritchett, V. S. "The Scientific Romances." In H. G. Wells: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Bernard Bergonzi, Prentice Hall Inc., 1976, pp. 32-39.

Wells, H. G. The Time Machine and Other Stories, Scholastic Book Services, 1963, pp. 1-124.

West, Anthony. "H. G. Wells." In H. G. Wells: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Bernard Bergonzi, Prentice Hall Inc., 1976, pp. 8-25.

Further Reading
Bergonzi, Bernard. The Early H. G. Wells: A Study of the Scientific Romances, Manchester University Press, 1961.
Bergonzi significantly contributed to establishing Wells's reputation as a preeminent science fiction writer, arguing that Wells's scientific romances, including The Time Machine, The Island of Doctor Moreau, The Invisible Man, and The War of the Worlds, are masterpieces of English literature.

Coren, Michael. The Invisible Man: The Life and Liberties of H. G. Wells, Atheneum, 1993.
Coren delves into the contradictions in Wells's life, asserting that despite Wells's advocacy for women's suffrage, he exhibited misogynistic tendencies, and though he showed empathy towards Jews, he harbored anti-Semitic views.

Huntington, John. The Logic of Fantasy: H. G. Wells and Science Fiction, Columbia University Press, 1982.
Huntington explores the connection between Wells's works and the science fiction genre, analyzing how Wells's writings shaped and influenced the developing form.

MacKenzie, Norman, and Jean MacKenzie. The Time Traveller: Life of H. G. Wells, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973.
In this accessible biography, the MacKenzies offer a relatively straightforward and uncontroversial account of Wells's life.