Historical Context
Social Order
Historically, Russia was characterized by a strict class hierarchy. From the
1600s to the mid-1800s, this structure included a system where most individuals
were serfs, essentially bound to the land and subject to the landowners' whims.
The increasing push for freedom during the first half of the 19th century,
influenced by the global movements that sparked the American and French
Revolutions, eventually led to governmental reforms. In 1861, serfs were
granted their freedom, shortly before the abolition of slavery in the United
States. However, the liberation of serfs brought little change. They were
supposed to gain control over the land they cultivated but had to repay the
aristocracy, thus continuing to work under the same conditions and for the same
landowners. As the 20th century dawned, 81.6% of Russians were identified as
peasants—a term encompassing a wide range from impoverished urban dwellers to
affluent landowners. About 9.3% were merchants, akin to today's middle class;
6.1% were military personnel; 0.9% were clergy; and 1.3% were the gentry, or
the ruling elite. These class distinctions were largely inherited, meaning the
descendants of former serf-owners, like the Prozorovs in the play, lived in
luxury. Tuzenbach notes, "I was born into a family that never knew what work or
worry meant," though he anticipates that, in his lifetime, everyone will work.
The military was the only non-hereditary class, prompting many young men to
join in hopes of improving their social standing. The Russian social order
struggled to accommodate those who deviated from their inherited roles. For
example, a merchant's son who chose not to pursue commerce was labeled
"raznochintsy," or "of no particular class," on his passport. Despite this
rigid structure, significant social changes occurred, particularly within the
vast government bureaucracy. Even before communism's rise in the late 1800s,
Russian society operated under a centralized bureaucracy based in St.
Petersburg, which approved all local changes and government projects. With over
six and a half million square miles of territory to manage—twice the size of
the United States—controlling local decisions from the capital was impractical,
especially without modern communication technologies like telephones. This
situation allowed local officials, such as Protopopov, the county board's
chairman in the play, to exert significant influence. The Russian bureaucracy
had fourteen ranks that individuals could ascend through careful political
maneuvering. This hierarchical structure is a key reason Andrei avoids conflict
with his superior, who is involved with his wife.
The Revolution
At the dawn of the 20th century, Tsar Nicholas II reigned over Russia as the final ruler from the Romanov dynasty, which had governed since 1613. Russian society was unraveling, primarily due to an economy in shambles that couldn't even ensure adequate food supplies for its people. Consequently, public opinion turned against the royal family. The vast centralized bureaucracy hampered any attempts to reform production practices, and the royal family appeared indifferent to the population's hardships. In 1904, the Tsar led the nation into a conflict with Japan. The Russo-Japanese War was a battle for which the country was ill-prepared, and the financial burden of warfare further depleted the economy and food supplies. Following Russia's defeat in 1905, widespread strikes erupted in St. Petersburg, leading to soldiers firing upon protestors and killing striking peasants. Though the 1905 revolution was quelled, the Tsar and his wife distanced themselves even more from the public's concerns. They began to rely on the counsel of Rasputin, a mystic, eventually allowing him to influence government appointments. Many of his appointees proved to be ineffective. When World War I commenced in 1914, Russia joined the fray but struggled significantly. Nicholas assumed direct command...
(This entire section contains 641 words.)
Unlock this Study Guide Now
Start your 48-hour free trial and get ahead in class. Boost your grades with access to expert answers and top-tier study guides. Thousands of students are already mastering their assignments—don't miss out. Cancel anytime.
Already a member? Log in here.
of the military, and the nation's losses were attributed to him. In 1917, following the war, the Russian Revolution made history by introducing a communist government based on the ideals proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in TheCommunist
Manifesto in 1847. Nicholas and his entire family were executed.
Setting
The oppressive monotony of provincial life in Russia forms the backdrop for the struggles of the three Prozorov sisters. Their existence is marked by relentless efforts to extract some semblance of happiness from their surroundings. Yet, the choices they make—whether in career or marriage—often lead them into deeper despair. Andrey, their brother, marries Natasha, whose presence disrupts the sisters' lives. Her increasing influence over Andrey even leads him to mortgage their home, threatening the sisters' position within the family and further entrenching them in their provincial existence.
The Prozorov house, once a bastion of hope and the key to their dream of returning to Moscow, now stands as a testament to lost possibilities. Bequeathed to the siblings by their father, the house was meant to be both a sanctuary and a stepping stone back to the life they long for in Moscow. However, Natasha's marriage to Andrey transforms the sisters from rightful owners into mere guests in their own home, dashing any hopes of selling the property and escaping their dreary surroundings. The house, which symbolized potential escape, becomes an unyielding anchor tethering them to their provincial fate.
The garden within the play serves as a poignant reminder of life's inherent beauty and simplicity, contrasting sharply with the sisters' turbulent reality. In the final act, Baron Tusenbach, moments before his tragic demise in a duel with Solyony, reflects on this stark contrast. "What beautiful trees they are!" he exclaims, "And how beautiful the life around them ought to be." His words underscore the profound disconnect between the beauty of nature and the harshness of human existence, highlighting the sisters' longing for a life that seems perpetually out of reach.
Literary Style
Setting
The play is set in "a provincial city," a term Chekhov uses to strike a balance
between stories that are not tied to specific locations and those that are
deeply rooted in their settings. The provincial backdrop is crucial in The
Three Sisters because the characters' emotions are heavily influenced by
their feelings about their surroundings. Olga, Masha, Irina, and Andrei all
believe their lives would be significantly improved if they were in Moscow.
Vershinin, who arrives from Moscow, praises the charm of small-town life, while
Natasha strengthens her influence by aligning with a local politician, becoming
the proverbial big fish in a small pond.
The entire narrative unfolds at the Prozorovs' house, a central gathering spot for various local personalities. The soldiers stationed in the town feel at ease there due to their connection with the sisters' father, Colonel Prozorov. Besides this military link, the house serves as a cultural hub for the town. Its residents are notably more cultured and educated than most of their neighbors. It's a grand residence, likely the finest in the area, as evidenced by the fact that it remains standing even when the neighboring wooden houses are engulfed in flames.
Conflict
All dramas thrive on the tension between opposing forces to keep audiences
engaged in discovering which side will prevail. In The Three Sisters,
the conflict is implied rather than overt, leading some viewers to feel that
"nothing happens." From the start, the sisters are preoccupied with leaving the
small town to return to Moscow. The play follows a series of events that hinder
their path to this goal. There isn't a single, definitive force obstructing
their plans, but every incident, from the fire and the feud to Natasha's
dominance of the household, raises doubts about whether Olga, Masha, and Irina
will achieve happiness by returning to Moscow. The play concludes without a
definitive resolution to this conflict. Only one sister is headed to Moscow,
and none have found lasting happiness, yet they hold onto hope for a better
future and a deeper understanding of their lives' meaning, suggesting that all
is not lost.
Realism
By the late 1800s, Realism emerged as a significant movement in the arts. To
grasp Realism, it's helpful to consider what it is not. It does not demand that
its audience be familiar with artistic conventions to comprehend what is
presented. It avoids using refined language or intricate plot structures that
may be engaging on stage but do not mirror how people genuinely speak and
behave in life. Chekhov is frequently linked to Realism, particularly in his
short stories. Early audiences found this level of realism perplexing because
it resulted in characters in his plays seemingly standing around, discussing
whatever came to mind. The structure and language of his work are less overtly
"artistic" than in traditional drama, offering fewer hints but leaving a
lasting impression on those who discern the play's meaning independently.
Antagonist
The issues that concern the sisters in this play are not straightforward but rather abstract philosophical matters that impact every moment of their lives equally. To clarify these issues for readers and audiences, Chekhov introduces an antagonist for the Prozorov family. An antagonist is a force in a play that opposes the protagonist, or main character; in this case, there are three main characters (or four if Andrei is included). Besides the numerous moral challenges the Prozorovs face, they also encounter direct opposition from Natasha. She embodies what they are not: she is uncouth, lacking in style, sentimental, greedy, aggressive, and manipulative. Her ability to move Irina out of her own room in the second act and then displace her husband by the end can be interpreted as Chekhov's commentary that rudeness prevails over refinement. However, critics have noted that she succeeds in areas the three sisters had already dismissed—she becomes influential in a town they had already rejected and takes over a house they had been eager to leave from the beginning.
Compare and Contrast
1901: The first transatlantic telegraph message was transmitted from England to Newfoundland, where Guglielmo Marconi successfully received it. The message was the letter "s," sent using telegraph code via radio waves.
1917: The American Marconi Company's concept of broadcasting sounds through the air was adapted for music and entertainment transmissions.
Today: Wireless technology now transmits millions of voices worldwide at any moment. Increasingly, radio broadcasts are being shifted from airwaves to cable wires for improved clarity, allowing people to enjoy fine art and music virtually anywhere.
1901: The harsh policies of Russia's Czar Nicholas II set the stage for revolution after World War I, ultimately transforming the country into the core of the communist superpower, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Today: Since the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, many of its former member countries, including Russia, have faced challenges in building political democracies and capitalist economies.
1901: Tuberculosis, which afflicted Chekhov for two decades and ultimately claimed his life, was incurable at the time and resulted in approximately 188 deaths per 100,000 people in America.
Today: Vaccination programs have reduced the threat of tuberculosis to less than one in 100,000, although outbreaks still occur in impoverished regions unable to afford vaccination initiatives.
Media Adaptations
In a video version of the play filmed in 1965, members of New York's Actor's Studio, such as Shelley Winters, Sandy Dennis, and Geraldine Page, participated. This version was directed by Paul Bogart and released by Hen's Tooth Video in 1998.
In 1970, Laurence Olivier directed an adaptation produced by Alan Clore Films. This version featured Jeanne Watts as Olga, Joan Plowright as Masha, and Louise Purnell as Olga.
Bibliography and Further Reading
SOURCES
Bruford, W. H., Chekhov and His Russia: A Sociological Study, Archon
Books, 1971.
Esslin, Martin, "Chekhov and the Modern Drama," in Anton Chekhov, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House Publishers, 1999, pp. 139-50.
Kirk, Irina, Anton Chekhov, Twayne Publishers, 1981, pp. 144-45.
Shaftymov, A., "Principles of Structure in Chekhov's Plays," in Chekhov: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert Louis Jackson, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967, p. 72.
Troyat, Henri, Chekhov, E. P. Dutton, 1984.
FURTHER READING
Hahn, Beverly, "Three Sisters," in her Chekhov: A Study of the Major
Stories and Plays, Cambridge University Press, 1977, pp. 284-309.
Hahn's widely referenced study explores the relationship between melancholy and optimism within the play.
Gerhardie, William, Anton Chekhov: A Critical Study, St. Martin's Press, 1974.
This book is a reissue of the original 1923 edition, one of the earliest critical assessments of Chekhov before his talent gained global acknowledgment. It is deemed a must-read for any serious Chekhov scholar.
Karlinsky, Simon, "Chekhov: The Gentle Subversive," introduction to The Letters of Anton Chekhov, Harper & Row, 1973, pp. 1-32.
This political analysis delves into Chekhov's work, typically viewed as apolitical, examining how he mirrored and subtly influenced Russia's fragile political climate at the turn of the century.
Peace, Richard, "The Three Sisters," in his Chekhov: A Study of the Four Major Plays, Yale University Press, 1983, pp. 74-116.
This brief analysis is particularly valuable for its extensive background details that clarify fleeting references within the play.
Pritchett, V. S., Chekhov: A Spirit Set Free, Random House, 1988.
Written by Pritchett, a celebrated novelist and short story writer of the twentieth century, this insightful critical biography reflects one master storyteller's admiration for another, enhancing readers' appreciation for Chekhov’s universal acclaim.
Stroeva, M. N., "The Three Sisters in the Production of the Moscow Art Theater," translated by Robert Lewis Jackson, in Jackson's Chekhov: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice Hall, 1967.
Originally published in Moscow in 1955, Stroeva's essay is a thoroughly researched work providing a theatrical context to the staging of this play.
Szondi, Peter, "The Drama in Crisis: Chekhov," in his Theory of the Modern Drama, University of Minnesota, 1987.
This essay highlights the use of the monologue in drama, focusing on Chekhov's distinctive application of this technique.
