Historical Context
Set in Europe during the years 1925 to 1935, with flashbacks that span from 1917 to 1925, Tender Is the Night portrays a group of affluent and idle American expatriates. Much like their peers from the "Jazz Age" and the "Roaring Twenties," they spend their time indulging in food, drink, social gatherings, and dealing with personal dilemmas.
When Dick Diver initially arrives in Zurich, Europe is engulfed in war. While there are mentions of his earlier days studying in Vienna and experiencing the discomforts of shelling, Diver remains largely unaffected by the war on a personal level. However, Europe was in the process of recovering from the catastrophic war believed to have ended all wars. Millions of Europeans were killed, and many cities lay in ruins. During the decade that the book mainly covers, Europe was striving to rebuild its infrastructure.
In the meantime, America was experiencing the Roaring Twenties. The stock market was booming, and a wave of "nouveau riche" Americans descended upon European shores with ample money to spend. Europe, in need of financial recovery, catered to these Americans, though cultural tensions arose. Tender Is the Night illustrates the lifestyle of typical wealthy Americans living leisurely on the European continent. Although the term "ugly American" was not coined yet, the book captures the early behavior that may have led to that label.
Fitzgerald was part of the Lost Generation of writers, a group that included Ernest Hemingway among others. Coined by poet Gertrude Stein, the Lost Generation referred to writers who left America after World War I to settle in Europe, primarily in France, rejecting the materialism that had taken over America. Although Fitzgerald was deeply immersed in the culture of the affluent and known for chronicling the "Jazz Age," his work can be interpreted as a serious critique of the wealth that emerged during that era.
Tender Is the Night originated from letters and notes Fitzgerald penned as early as 1925, shortly after The Great Gatsby, but it wasn't published until 1934. During this period, the immense wealth that characterized his subjects vanished following the 1929 stock market crash. By the time the novel was completed, America was in the throes of the Great Depression, and literary tastes had dramatically shifted. The movement towards social realism was gaining traction, and Fitzgerald's work was perceived by some as outdated and trivial. Although Tender Is the Night offered a critical view of the wealthy and the impact of their wealth, it wasn't considered as significant as it might have been if it had been written before the financial collapse.
With the clarity that time provides, Tender Is the Night can now be viewed, in part, as a narrative detailing the impact of the war on an entire generation. While standing on what was once a major battlefield where countless lives were lost, Dick Diver remarks:
This land here cost twenty lives a foot that summer . . . See that little stream—we could walk to it in two minutes. It took the British a month to walk it—a whole empire walking very slowly, dying in front and pushing forward behind. And another empire walked very slowly backward a few inches a day, leaving the dead like a million bloody rugs. No Europeans will ever do that again in this generation.
Tender Is the Night also serves as a critique of the growing psychiatric industry accessible to the affluent. When Dick Diver visited Zurich, Europe was heavily influenced by the psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud and his peers. Fitzgerald, due to his wife's ongoing psychiatric issues, became quite knowledgeable...
(This entire section contains 638 words.)
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about psychiatry and its various treatments and theories. Although psychiatry was advancing significantly in theory and practice during the period in whichTender Is the Night is set, it remained largely a remedy for the wealthy, a point that Fitzgerald astutely acknowledges and critiques throughout his novel.
Ideas for Group Discussions
While numerous critics and readers argue that Gatsby stands as Fitzgerald's greatest literary masterpiece, others consider Tender Is the Night—whose title is derived from Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale," a detail worthy of discussion—to be a more insightful and fully realized novel. It might be beneficial to carefully compare these two works to determine which offers a deeper understanding of the human condition. Furthermore, the novel was released in a revised edition in 1948, where the background information was removed from its original placement and presented in chronological order with the rest of the story. Readers may find it enlightening to compare these versions to decide if the original method of presenting background information is more effective than a straightforward chronological narrative, or if the revision enhanced the initial publication.
1. If Amory Blaine's journey is interpreted as a quest for "selfhood," could Dick Diver's journey be seen as a loss of that very quality?
2. Does the European setting of much of the novel add to its impact—such as in the scene where Dick encounters conflict with an Italian?
3. One of the themes of Tender Is the Night is described as "the tyranny of the weak." Does the dynamic between Dick and Nicole truly support this notion?
4. Considering contemporary viewpoints, does the "psychology" depicted in the novel appear authentic and convincing? Which symptoms seem most realistic?
5. Do some readers find a valid parallel between Dick's "fall" and Fitzgerald's own "failures"? Are there any weaknesses in this theory?
6. Besides the tension between Dick and Nicole, what is the main conflict in the novel? Does it contribute to the thematic depth of the story?
Literary Style
Title
The title of the book is inspired by a line from John Keats's “Ode to a Nightingale.” The poem, filled with melancholic images of drinking, reflects the book's character and tone. As a budding author, Fitzgerald was deeply influenced by Keats. In chapter XXII of Book Two, while in Italy, Dick experiences a lift in his spirits as he passes by flower stalls and the house where Keats passed away, just before returning to his hotel where a note from Rosemary awaits him.
Three-Part Narrative Structure Tender Is the Night is structured into three distinct sections, or Books. Although the story is told in the third person, Book One begins from Rosemary Hoyt's viewpoint, highlighting the dazzling facade of Dick and Nicole Divers’ lives. The reader, like Rosemary, is drawn in by the allure and luxury of their lifestyle. However, as the narrative progresses, subtle hints suggest that not everything is perfect with Nicole and Dick, and their life may not be as glamorous as it seems.
Book Two takes a step back in time to uncover the reality behind the Divers' charm, presenting Nicole’s history and the development of her relationship with Dick. Finally, Book Three portrays Dick attempting to understand his life. The brilliance of Book One has faded, and the revelations in Book Two have taken their toll. Now, in Book Three, it is time for Dick to move forward.
Foreshadowing
The first indication that something is amiss in the Divers’ marriage occurs in Book One when Mrs. McKisco witnesses a “scene” between Dick and Nicole in the bathroom during a party. This incident hints at Nicole’s emotional struggles and is the first of several similar “scenes.”
Also in Book One, Tommy Barban encounters Rosemary Hoyt for the first time and mentions his fondness for the Divers, “especially Nicole.” Eventually, Barban takes Nicole away from Dick and marries her.
Foreshadowing the impending violence in the Divers' lives, an incident occurs at the train station as Abe North is about to leave. A woman known to Nicole shoots an Englishman without any apparent reason. The following day, Jules Peterson is discovered dead in Rosemary’s bed, compelling Dick to conceal evidence to prevent a scandal from consuming them.
The Symbolism of Names
Fitzgerald cleverly uses names and titles to enhance character development and plot progression while also highlighting the book’s metaphors and themes. For example, the title of Rosemary Hoyt’s film, Daddy’s Girl, directly references the pervasive incest theme within the novel. Nicole is a survivor of sexual abuse by her father, and the connection to the significantly older Dick as a father figure to Rosemary is evident. Nicole is as much a "daddy's girl" as Rosemary; she not only endured abuse from her father but also has Dick, an older man, who takes on a paternal role in managing her psychological issues.
The name Dick Diver is indicative of the duality in his character’s role within the story. The crude connotations of “Dick” and “Diver” align with his blatant womanizing, and by the end of the novel, his character has descended into a social "diver" rather than a social "climber."
Tommy Barban, a mercenary soldier who appears somewhat out of place among the cultured circles surrounding the Divers, has a name that resonates with the word "barbaric."
Flashbacks
In Book Two, flashbacks are used to disclose the backstory of Nicole’s illness and her relationship with Dick. When Tender Is the Night was initially published, Fitzgerald faced criticism for this narrative structure. After its release, he began to reconsider the flashback arrangement. In 1951, Malcolm Cowley reedited Tender Is the Night and published it “With the Author’s Final Revisions.” These changes included moving Nicole’s case history and much of Books Two and Three to the beginning of the novel, while shifting the beach scene and most of Book One to a later point. Cowley’s revisions were heavily criticized, leading to the eventual restoration of the book’s original sequence.
Setting
In F. Scott Fitzgerald's "Tender Is the Night," the settings are more than just backdrops for the characters' lives; they are symbolic landscapes that reflect the novel's central themes and character dynamics. The locales, such as the French Riviera, Zurich, and Rome, each play a significant role in the narrative, underscoring the interplay of wealth, morality, and disillusionment. The subtleties of these settings mirror the complexities of the characters’ lives, illustrating the entanglement of personal ambition, societal expectations, and personal downfall.
French Riviera
The French Riviera serves as the primary setting and plays a pivotal role in shaping the narrative. Described as a "home" for Dick Diver and his wife, the Riviera is a luxurious retreat along France’s Mediterranean coast, offering a glamorous backdrop to the unraveling lives of its characters. Here, the novel begins, unfolds, and concludes, with the Rivieran beaches becoming a stage for lavish parties and personal dramas.
As a symbol of wealth and carefree indulgence, the Riviera highlights the opulent yet hollow existence of the rich. It is a playground where characters such as Rosemary, Nicole, and Dick indulge in extravagance, attending empty, pretentious gatherings. For Nicole Warren, the Riviera manifests her family's relentless materialism, as evidenced by her extravagant spending. Meanwhile, Dick Diver often shines in social settings, his charm and hospitality masking deeper issues. Yet, beneath the glittering facade, the Riviera also witnesses moments of personal betrayal, such as Nicole’s infidelity.
Gausse’s Hôtel des Étrangers
Gausse’s Hôtel des Étrangers, located on the French Riviera, becomes the setting for the novel's opening. This hotel not only introduces the initial romantic tension between Dick Diver and film star Rosemary Hoyt but also serves as a microcosm of the narrative’s broader themes. Guests at the hotel represent a world of wealth and fashion, with Dick Diver as their charismatic centerpiece.
The hotel symbolizes the intersection of Old World decadence and New World idealism. While it epitomizes a decadent Europe, full of aesthetic and moral bankruptcy, it also underscores Dick’s struggle. He embodies American optimism but is ultimately unable to reconcile this with the decayed values around him, which mirror his own internal conflicts. In trying to save his "home"—both his wife and the ideals he holds dear—Dick sacrifices his own potential and spiritual vitality.
Zurich
Zurich is the setting for the novel's first significant flashback, where Dick Diver meets Nicole, whom he decides to marry and rehabilitate. The Swiss city symbolizes both a place of healing and a reflection of personal isolation. It is here that Nicole is interned when her mental illness resurfaces, and where Dick, meant to complete his studies, is drawn into a life entwined with Nicole’s fragility.
Zurich is seen as a bastion of psychoanalysis, aligning with Dick’s profession and dedication. However, this setting also symbolizes his inability to address his own burgeoning issues, such as his incipient alcoholism. This location echoes Fitzgerald's own personal history, particularly the struggles with his wife Zelda's mental health, providing a poignant layer of autobiographical significance.
Rome
Rome represents a critical juncture in Dick Diver’s downward spiral, characterized by his physical altercation with the police and an affair with Rosemary. The city's ancient aura and enduring power contrast with Dick’s moral and personal decay. His involvement in a violent incident illustrates his degeneration and the external influences that contribute to his downfall.
Rome is also symbolic of Dick’s entrapment in a marriage that ultimately consumes him. Despite the financial support from Nicole’s sister, Baby Warren, Dick feels "bought," underscoring the theme of moral compromise. The capital’s historical richness and complexity metaphorically foreshadow Dick’s destruction through his commitment to a marriage driven by wealth and obligation. Nicole’s recovery from her mental distress parallels the robust, capitalist America she represents, but at the expense of Dick’s idealism and integrity.
Through these settings, Fitzgerald intricately weaves a narrative of contrasting worlds—one of superficial charm and wealth, the other of personal and moral decay. The landscapes not only provide a physical space for the characters’ interactions but also mirror their internal struggles, emphasizing the profound impact of environment on identity and values.
Compare and Contrast
1920s: Following the severe impact of World War I, Europe is focused on reconstructing its economies and infrastructures.
Today: In the aftermath of Communism's collapse in the 1990s, European nations have established the European Union—a unified economic organization that standardizes monetary systems and economic policies across Europe. The European Union is poised to become one of the world's most formidable economic forces.
1930s: Numerous Americans who gained wealth during the previous decade's stock market boom have lost everything due to the 1929 crash.
Today: Following the 2000 stock market downturn and the "dot com" collapse, many young Americans who attained riches through stock options in the 1990s have seen significant losses in their wealth.
1930s: Despite many African Americans moving to France to escape U.S. discrimination, they still face prejudice, making it challenging to access certain businesses and public places.
Today: Discrimination in France is prohibited by law and is viewed as a violation of human rights.
1930s: By the release of Tender Is the Night, the "social realism" movement in literature and art is gaining acceptance among readers and critics.
Today: Social realism is no longer a distinct artistic movement, though its elements and themes related to the working class are prevalent in modern literature and art.
1920s–1930s: F. Scott Fitzgerald's enduring partnership with his Scribners editor, Maxwell Perkins, plays a crucial role in his career. Perkins influences nearly every facet of Fitzgerald's life, including his writing, financial matters, and health issues.
Today: The influential roles once held by editors in major publishing houses have largely been taken over by agents. The "Maxwell Perkinses" of the past are now mostly a thing of the past.
Adaptations
The 1962 film adaptation of the novel, featuring an outstanding musical score that earned an Academy Award nomination, starred Jennifer Jones as Nicole, Jason Robards as Dick Diver, and Paul Lukas as the Swiss psychologist attempting to "save" Dick. Directed by Henry King, the film boasted impressive visual effects, particularly in the Riviera scenes. However, critics generally felt the story progressed too slowly, despite its memorable moments, though it did provide a seemingly realistic portrayal of 1920s Europe.
Media Adaptations
In 1955, Tender Is the Night was turned into a one-hour television special, featuring Mercedes McCambridge as Nicole Diver. In 1962, the novel was transformed into a Hollywood film by Henry King. Produced by Twentieth Century Fox Studios, the film stars Jennifer Jones, Jason Robards, Jr., Joan Fontaine, Tom Ewell, and Jill St. John, and it is available on video. A three-hour miniseries adaptation was released in 1985, directed by Robert Knight and starring Peter Strauss, Edward Asner, and Sean Young.
Sterling Audio from Thorndike, Maine, produced a ten-cassette, unabridged audio version of the novel.
For those interested in related works, “Last Call: The Final Chapter of F. Scott Fitzgerald,” featuring Jeremy Irons and Sissy Spacek, was released as a Showtime Original Picture in 2003 and is available on video. This film portrays the last few months of Fitzgerald’s life.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Bruccoli, Matthew Joseph, with Judith S. Baughman, “Introduction,” in Reader’s Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “Tender Is the Night”, University of South Carolina Press, 1996, pp. 1–48.
Chamberlain, John, “Book of the Times,” in “Tender Is the Night”: Essays in Criticism, edited by Marvin LaHood, Indiana University Press, 1969, pp. 68–70; initially published in New York Times, April 13, 1934.
Colum, Mary M., “The Psychopathic Novel,” in “Tender Is the Night”: Essays in Criticism, edited by Marvin LaHood, Indiana University Press, 1969, pp. 59–62; originally featured in Forum and Century 91, April 1934.
Gray, James, “Scott Fitzgerald Re-Enters, Leading Bewildered Giant,” in “Tender Is the Night”: Essays in Criticism, edited by Marvin LaHood, Indiana University Press, pp. 64–66; initially published in St. Paul Dispatch, April 12, 1934.
Gregory, Horace, “A Generation Riding to Romantic Death,” in “Tender Is the Night”: Essays in Criticism, edited by Marvin LaHood, Indiana University Press, pp. 72–74; first published in New York Herald Tribune, April 15, 1934.
Rogers, Cameron, “Fitzgerald’s Novel a Masterpiece,” in “Tender Is the Night”: Essays in Criticism, edited by Marvin LaHood, Indiana University Press, 1969, pp. 64–66; originally featured in San Francisco Chronicle, April 15, 1934.
Further Reading
Allen, Frederick L., Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920’s, HarperCollins, 2000 (rev. ed.). Initially published in 1931 and reissued in 2000, Only Yesterday serves as an informal narrative of the era known as the “Roaring Twenties.” The book particularly emphasizes the stock market boom and its eventual collapse, offering a vivid portrayal of the period during which Fitzgerald was writing.
Berg, A. Scott, Max Perkins: Editor of Genius, Riverhead Books, 1977. This biography, awarded the National Book Award, explores the significant impact Perkins had not just on Fitzgerald but also on contemporaries like Ernest Hemingway and Thomas Wolfe.
Bruccoli, Matthew J., Some Sort of Epic Grandeur: The Life of F. Scott Fitzgerald, University of South Carolina Press, 2002 (rev. ed.). First released in 1981, Bruccoli’s biography is widely considered the authoritative work on Fitzgerald. The revised edition incorporates new insights from recently uncovered manuscripts and documents.
Bruccoli, Matthew J., ed., Zelda Fitzgerald: The Collected Writings, University of Alabama Press, 1997. While F. Scott Fitzgerald is the more renowned author of the duo, his wife Zelda penned a novel, Save Me the Waltz, along with numerous stories and poems, some published during her lifetime. Bruccoli’s compilation brings these works together, enriching the understanding of Zelda’s persona.
Milford, Nancy, Zelda: A Biography, HarperPerennial, 2001 (rev. ed.). Based on the author’s doctoral thesis, this book provides the most comprehensive depiction of Zelda Fitzgerald, tracing her life from her early days as a southern belle through her turbulent marriage to Fitzgerald and culminating in her tragic death in a sanatorium fire.
Wheelock, John Hall, Editor to Author: The Letters of Maxwell Perkins, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1987. This collection of letters by Maxwell Perkins, who was Fitzgerald’s editor, demonstrates the deep affection and admiration Perkins felt not just for his authors but for the art of literature as a whole. Perkins's connection with Fitzgerald is illustrated through numerous letters he penned to or about him throughout the years.
