the teahouse.

A few weeks later, when Colonel Purdy calls Captain Fisby, the audience understands by the end of the conversation that Fisby has not simply adapted to the wants of the Tobiki villagers but has himself become so acculturated that virtually nothing that he set out to do has been carried out according to army regulations. As act 1 ends, Colonel Purdy is sending a psychiatrist to Tobiki to examine Captain Fisby. The psychiatrist, Captain McLean, calls on Fisby, who is dressed Okinawan style and who offers the medical corpsman all the native courtesies. McLean questions Fisby under the guise of doing an ethnological study, and gradually, McLean himself is won over to Fisby’s ways, to the utter frustration of Colonel Purdy.

Meanwhile, the plan to develop a souvenir industry fails completely. The American soldiers cannot appreciate that each cup has been handcrafted; they complain that mass-produced cups would take much less time and cost less. It develops, however, that a feasible industry is that of making sweet-potato brandy.

The setting for act 3 is the teahouse, now completed. A celebration is being held, and, lost in concentration, Fisby fails to see Colonel Purdy and Sergeant Gregovich enter. Tobiki is now a thriving, model village, but nothing has been done according to U.S. Army orders. Purdy orders an investigation by Washington bureaucracy and puts Fisby under technical arrest pending court-martial proceedings. Gregovich, however, returns from inspecting the village and congratulates Fisby on his accomplishments. Purdy persists in ordering that the teahouse be torn down and the brandy stills be destroyed. Since Lotus Blossom must leave, she and Fisby go through the imaginary ritual of drinking tea as they take their farewells. Lotus Blossom wants to go to the United States, where, she believes, “Everybody love everybody. Everybody help everybody—that’s democracy.” Fisby explains that democracy is a system, nothing more, and that the ideal and the reality are not always the same. Sakini, reassigned to Major McEvoy, begs to be allowed to remain with Fisby.

As Fisby is reflecting on what he has learned during his experience at Tobiki, Colonel Purdy appears and asks for Fisby’s help in restoring Tobiki—teahouse, brandy stills, and all. Amazed, Fisby learns that after his activities were reported to Washington, some senator decided to use Tobiki as an example of American “get-up-and-go” abroad; he is sending photographers and reporters for magazine coverage. There is mass confusion. Sakini saves the day: He has cleverly managed to keep the barrels intact, and the panels of the teahouse have been hidden away, so that rebuilding takes a matter of minutes. Even Purdy can register approval as he orders a sign naming a main street for his wife and goes with Fisby to the teahouse to have “Twenty Star” strength brandy. As the curtain falls, Sakini concludes with the saying with which he opened the play.

From the outset of The Teahouse of the August Moon, several devices are used to make the audience transfer their thinking to Okinawa after World War II. As the curtain opens, bamboo panels suggest the Asian setting, and, although Sakini has an American face, his costume is sufficiently native for him to be accepted as Okinawan. Moreover, the fact that he is wearing ridiculously oversized army-issue shoes and socks suggests the immediate postwar setting while identifying the play as comic rather than tragic.

Sakini introduces each act by commenting to the audience on Okinawa’s record of defeat in the past and on other matters that establish the need for cross-cultural understanding. His use of folk wisdom and pseudophilosophical comments in fragmented English further make clear the bicultural nature of the play, as does the use of stereotypic motions such as bowing and hand clapping. Thus, his commentary functions as the soliloquy does in some plays.

Using something of a reversal of dramatic irony, Sakini more often than not speaks in the guise of sincerity and fact, but because he uses a fallacious line of reasoning, the audience is aware that Sakini is not naïve—quite the contrary—he employs the facade of politeness in order to state what is almost the opposite of his intended meaning. In addition to introductory comments, Sakini makes numerous asides, interpretive and amusing, that allow the audience, throughout the play, to know what he, as a defeated Okinawan, thinks of his conquerors’ customs and ways of thinking, especially those having to do with democracy, government bureaucracy, and the American military forces.

In like manner, the American occupation personnel are made to perform and to react in typical, even stereotypical, American ways. Properties such as Purdy’s magazine conform to the stereotype of the mindless enlisted man who does not really have to think as long as he obeys orders from above. The gradual acculturation that is taking place is evidenced from such things as having Captain Fisby put his cricket cage on top of official paperwork, and replacing his uniform with native Okinawan geta (wooden sandals) and kimono.

The intervals of time between scenes or acts are logical with reference to what is going on. Several days elapse to allow time for the trip to Tobiki; several weeks pass before Colonel Purdy calls Captain Fisby to receive a progress report; suitable spans of time pass before the villagers return unsuccessfully from trying to sell crafts, and time is allowed for the completion of the teahouse. Sometimes subtle devices are used to convey perceptions of the foreigner about the American. The very fact that Colonel Purdy and Captain McLean (despite his name) are quite fat suggest both the wealth and perhaps the lack of self-discipline often associated with Americans by foreigners. Likewise, the poverty of the Okinawans, by contrast, is easily perceived by the “background of sagging huts” and the fact that the Okinawans are very small.

World War II: The Global Conflict

World War II raged across the globe from August 31, 1939, until August 14, 1945, pitting the formidable Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—against the resolute Allies, including Great Britain, the USSR, and the United States. This monumental conflict unfolded on multiple fronts, with the battle theaters spreading across Europe and the South Pacific.
The Precursor to Conflict: Japanese-American Relations before Pearl Harbor

A decade of mounting tension existed between Japan and the United States leading up to America's involvement in World War II. Japan's aggressive militaristic foreign policy targeted its neighbors throughout Asia and the South Pacific. By 1937, Japan had invaded China, sparking the enduring Sino-Japanese War, which continued in tandem with World War II. The Tripartite Pact of 1940 sealed a powerful alliance with Germany and Italy. Following Japan's occupation of Indochina in 1941, the United States, not yet embroiled in the world conflict, retaliated by freezing Japanese assets and imposing an embargo on crucial resources like petroleum.

Pearl Harbor: A Day of Infamy

Though the United States initially adhered to a policy of neutrality during the early years of World War II, its sympathies grew ever closer to Britain and against the Axis powers. This stance dramatically shifted on December 7, 1941, when a surprise attack by 360 Japanese warplanes struck the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. Within half an hour, five of eight battleships lay destroyed, and 180 military aircraft were lost. The attack claimed 2,300 American lives, with over 1,000 wounded, while Japanese casualties remained below 100. The United States formally entered the war against Japan the following day.

The Internment of Japanese-Americans

In response to the Pearl Harbor attack, the U.S. government subjected nearly all Japanese-Americans, many of whom were U.S. citizens, to sweeping wartime measures. Executive Order 9066, enacted in March 1942, led to the forcible relocation of 110,000 individuals to internment camps, or "relocation centers," scattered across the nation. The largest of these camps was Manzanar, in California.

Despite Japan's surrender on August 14, 1945, internees were not released until November. Upon their return, they discovered personal assets and properties confiscated under claims of tax debts and storage fees. Although the internment was justified as a security measure against potential treason, it is now recognized as an unjust act fueled by racial prejudice rather than genuine threat. It wasn't until 1988 that the U.S. government issued an official apology and reparations.

The Pacific Theatre: Turning the Tide

Initially, Japan achieved a series of victories against the United States in the Pacific, capturing Manila, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, and Rangoon. However, the tide turned with the pivotal Battle of Midway in June 1942, where U.S. naval forces dealt a decisive blow to Japanese ambitions. From August 1942 to February 1943, the Battle of Guadalcanal saw further Allied triumphs. In 1944, Saipan fell, and the Allies initiated devastating firebombing raids over Japan. The grueling Battle of Okinawa in February 1945 marked one of the Pacific's most brutal encounters, culminating in a significant American victory.

The Atomic Conclusion: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Following Germany's surrender on May 8, 1945, after Hitler's suicide, the Pacific war dragged on. The Allied powers issued the Potsdam Declaration in July, demanding Japan's unconditional surrender, but it was ignored. Then on August 6, the first atomic bomb was unleashed on Hiroshima, followed by a second on Nagasaki three days later, resulting in a staggering death toll exceeding 200,000.

Japan capitulated on August 14, 1945, and formal peace was declared on September 2 aboard the USS Missouri. A separate peace treaty with China on September 9 officially concluded World War II. The subsequent occupation of Japan by Allied forces, primarily led by the United States, lasted until 1952.

Setting

The stage is draped in the historical fabric of post-World War II, during the American Occupation of Japan. Our journey unfolds on the lush canvas of Okinawa, the grandest of its archipelago, nestled serenely in the South China Sea. This backdrop is pivotal to the narrative, as it delves into the intricate dance of introducing democracy to the indigenous Okinawan tapestry. The protagonists stride in as either U.S. military figures or residents of the quaint, imaginary village of Tobiki.

Dialogue

The dialogue weaves a tapestry of familiar stereotypes, echoing the Western portrayal of Asian societies. Characters like Sakini, for instance, speak in a fragmented English that Western audiences often associate with any Asian accent, regardless of origin. This broken dialect, while easily recognizable, carries a heavy burden of offense for many Asians and Asian Americans. An example is Sakini's words as he removes gum from his mouth to address the audience: "Most generous gift of American sergeant." When narrating the American troops' presence, he says, "History of Okinawa reveal distinguished record of conquerors." Such clichés are seen as demeaning by many.

The depiction of Okinawan speech further embodies stereotypical portrayals of non-Western cultures. The play includes a footnote explaining that "the Luchuan dialect used throughout the play is merely a phonetic approximation." This fictionalized language, often perceived as gibberish, can be deeply offensive, illustrating another layer of stereotyping in the portrayal of Asian speech.

Costumes

Dressing in the play is a vivid testament to the collision and mingling of Japanese and American influences. Sakini's attire exemplifies this cultural blend. As an interpreter for the American forces, he seamlessly navigates both worlds. Though Okinawan, his adoption of American military customs is evident in his attire, painting a picture of cultural fusion. He dons "a native shirt," juxtaposed with a mix of American civilian and military garments. His shorts channel American civilian style, while his military clothing hangs awkwardly. "His shoes, a gift from a G.I., are several sizes too large. His socks droop in wrinkles over his ankles," reflecting the mismatched Americanization that doesn't quite fit the Okinawan spirit.

Later, Fisby’s embrace of Okinawan culture is mirrored through his clothing. His blue bathrobe, worn as a makeshift kimono, alongside a "geta" and "a native straw hat," signifies his cultural shift. Similarly, Captain MacLean dons his bathrobe as a kimono, signaling his own adaptation to local customs.

World War II and Its Aftermath

1939-1945: From 1939 to 1945, the globe was engulfed in the tumultuous storm of World War II, a colossal clash between the Axis and the Allied forces. The curtain fell on this devastating conflict after the United States unleashed atomic fury upon Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, followed by a second strike on Nagasaki three days later. The reverberations of these events led to Japan's surrender on August 14, marking the war's dramatic conclusion.

1945-1952: In the wake of World War II, Japan underwent profound transformation under the watchful eye of the Allied Occupation Forces. A sweeping overhaul reshaped its economic, political, and educational landscapes. By 1952, Japan emerged from occupation's shadow, regaining control over its territories, save for the islands of Okinawa and Sakishima.

Post-War Occupation and Reclamation

1945: The decisive battle for Okinawa culminated in Japanese defeat, ushering in an era of American oversight over the island.

1945-1952: In the post-war epoch, Okinawa remained under the watchful presence of American military forces. As Japan gradually reclaimed its sovereignty in 1952, Okinawa and Sakishima lingered under foreign dominion.

1972: The tide of change swept over the Ryukyu Islands, as Okinawa and Sakishima finally returned to Japan's embrace, metamorphosing into the prefecture of Okinawa. Nevertheless, the United States maintained a formidable presence with 88 military installations on the island.

Tensions and Apologies

1990s: Tensions simmered between Okinawans and the American military, home to nearly 30,000 personnel. A tragic incident in 1995, involving the indictment of three American servicemen for the abduction and assault of a young Okinawan girl, ignited widespread outrage. Yet, despite mounting protests, Japan extended the lease of land for these bases in 1997.

1942-1945: In the wake of Pearl Harbor's calamity, the United States government invoked Executive Order 9066, birthing the War Relocation Authority in March 1942. This mandate forcibly displaced around 110,000 individuals of Japanese ancestry from their homes, consigning them to internment camps scattered across the nation.

1988: After decades of silence, the United States government issued a heartfelt apology to the 60,000 surviving Japanese Americans who endured internment during World War II, for the hardships and losses they suffered. Congress authorized grants of $20,000 to each affected individual as a gesture of restitution.

Geisha: A Changing Landscape

1920s: During the vibrant 1920s, Japan boasted a flourishing community of approximately 80,000 professional geisha, each an emblem of traditional art and culture.

1990s: By the 1990s, the number of geisha had dwindled to a mere few thousand, catering predominantly to politicians and affluent businessmen, preserving a bygone era's elegance in modern times.

The Teahouse of the August Moon gracefully transitioned onto the silver screen in 1956, brought to life by the skilled direction of Daniel Mann. The cinematic adaptation sparkled with the captivating performance of Marlon Brando, crafted into screenplay magic by John Patrick.

In 1962, the elegant charm of The Teahouse of the August Moon once again unfurled its narrative petals, this time under the bright lights of television. John Patrick's masterful adaptation found a new home in the NBC's cherished series, the 'Hallmark Hall of Fame.'

Sources

Atkinson, Brooks, Review in New York Times, October 16, 1953, p 32.

--------- Review in New York Times, October 25, 1953, p. 1.

---------Review in New York Times, September 12, 1954.

---------Review in New York Times, November 9, 1956, p. 33.

Barnes, Clive, Review in New York Times, December 29, 1970, p. 38.

Marion, John, "John Patrick," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 7. Twentieth Century American Dramatists, edited by John MacNicholas, Gale Research, 1981, pp. 166-71.

Middleton, Drew, Review in New York Times, May 2, 1954, p. 3.

Review in New York Times, April 23,1954, p 23.

Further Reading

Black, Wallace B, and Jean F Blashfleld, Iwo Jima and Okinawa, Maxwell Macrmllan International, 1993.
This is a recounting of the World War II battles between the United States and Japan on the islands of
Iwo Jima and Okinawa It is written at the youth level.

Frank, Richard B, Downfall- The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire, Random House, 1999.
This is a history of Japan from 1926 to the end of World War II in 1945.

Golden, Arthur, Memoirs of a Geisha- A Novel, Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.
This widely popular contemporary fiction received much praise from critics and the general public Golden's novel is a memoir-like tale of the life of a Japanese geisha.

Molasky, Michael S, The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa Literature and Memory, Routledge, 1999.
Molasky's book is a history of the Allied Occupation of Okinawa from 1945-1952.