Historical Context
The intricate relationship between social upheaval and literary expression finds a poignant example in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, which, although set during the 1780s, resonates with the concerns of Dickens' own time. England during the Victorian era was marked by industrial transformation and social tension, yet it avoided the violent revolutions that shook France and America. Dickens' novel serves both as an exploration of historical calamities and a warning to his contemporaries about the dangers of social neglect.
Revolutionary Backdrop
Set against the backdrop of the 1780s, A Tale of Two Cities explores a time when England was embroiled in a prolonged conflict with France. This period was defined by relative peace and prosperity in England but also growing apprehension about the revolutionary ideals spreading from France. Influential figures like William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge introduced these principles to England, arousing fear among the aristocracy and middle classes who worried about threats to their stable way of life. Despite England's own social inequities, a tradition of peaceful change and political unity against France helped stave off the kind of upheaval that revolutionized France.
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution brought a mixed legacy to England, creating new wealth but also a class of urban poor who suffered from overcrowding, disease, and unending labor. As Ruth Glancy notes in A Tale of Two Cities: Dickens's Revolutionary Novel, "overcrowding, disease, hunger, long hours of work, and mindless, repetitive labor characterized the new life for this new class of urban poor." Unprotected by rights or unions, they were largely ignored or feared by the upper classes. This neglect fueled concerns that England might face a revolution similar to France's.
Reform and Resistance
In Dickens' day, the threat of a violent uprising still loomed over England, but it was mitigated by the efforts of reform movements like the Chartists. Though early reforms, such as the 1832 Reform Bill, addressed some issues, lasting change was slow. It wasn't until 1867 that Benjamin Disraeli's Reform Bill significantly expanded voting rights, quelling fears of revolution. Yet, as Glancy remarks, "there was no bloody revolution, but Dickens and others deplored the snail's pace that the government took to achieve peaceful reform." Dickens viewed this era with skepticism, equating it to the "epoch of belief ... the epoch of incredulity" of the French Revolution.
Dickens' Moral Vision
Charles Dickens, a foremost novelist of the Victorian Age, used his writings to highlight the moral failures of his society. While critics noted his sentimentality and plot coincidences, they also praised his capacity to bring characters to life, embodying moral principles. Dickens became a cultural icon, crossing class lines through his serialized works, which were accessible to both the upper classes and factory workers.
Individual Responsibility
Critics sometimes accused Dickens of failing to provide solutions to the social injustices he depicted. However, this criticism misses Dickens' principal message: the importance of individual accountability and compassion. Believing economic systems alone could not alleviate poverty, Dickens stressed personal responsibility. He argued that individual efforts, however small, were vital in a world beset by violence and injustice.
Condemnation of Violence
In A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens does not shy from portraying the violence of his era, yet he refuses to glorify it. By illustrating the mistreatment of lower classes that fueled the French Revolution, he condemns the subsequent atrocities committed in its name. For Dickens, no cause justifies abandoning humanity and sympathy for others.
Expert Q&A
How did audiences respond to 'A Christmas Carol?' What Victorian era political issues were discussed?
"A Christmas Carol" was warmly received upon its 1843 release, quickly selling out and praised for its social and political messages. It addressed urban poverty and child labor, issues central to Victorian political debates. Dickens highlighted these concerns through Scrooge's transformation and symbolic characters, urging the public to act. The novella inspired charitable acts and influenced legislative changes to improve conditions for poor children, reflecting Dickens' impact on societal attitudes and reforms.
How does Dickens portray the French upper classes before the French Revolution in A Tale of Two Cities?
Dickens portrays the French aristocracy before the French Revolution as decadent and oppressive. Characters like the Marquis St. Evrémonde symbolize the heartless indifference and cruelty of the upper classes, contributing to their own downfall. While Dickens sympathizes with the oppressed, he criticizes the violent upheaval of the Revolution. Charles Darnay represents a more enlightened aristocrat, yet must renounce his title to reject his class's cruelty, highlighting the irredeemable decadence of the aristocracy.
What is Dickens' attitude toward law in A Tale of Two Cities?
Dickens portrays a critical view of the law in both England and France, highlighting its unfairness and bias against the poor. In A Tale of Two Cities, he illustrates how legal systems fail to deliver justice, as seen in the trials of Charles Darnay, where outcomes are influenced by theatrics rather than truth. Dickens' perspective is shaped by his understanding of socioeconomic factors contributing to crime, emphasizing that criminals are often victims of their circumstances.
Which passages in Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities are historically accurate?
In A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens accurately depicts several historical events of the French Revolution, particularly the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Descriptions such as the fortress's structure and the actions of Governor de Launay are historically precise. Dickens accurately notes the release of seven prisoners, although the number of beheaded garrisons may be less than stated. The portrayal of Governor de Launay's capture and execution is also factual.
Dickens' View on Revolution and Class Conflict in A Tale of Two Cities
In A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens explores the causes and effects of the French Revolution, portraying the aristocracy as ruthless and oppressive, which justified the peasants' uprising. However, he does not fully favor either side, as he criticizes the violent extremes of the revolutionaries. Dickens emphasizes the universal potential for good and evil across all classes, suggesting that wealth and power often lead to corruption. His work reflects concern over similar social tensions in England, warning against oppression and advocating for justice and empathy.
The attitude of British and French royalty and nobility towards their countries and future rule in A Tale of Two Cities
In A Tale of Two Cities, British and French royalty and nobility exhibit starkly different attitudes towards their countries and future rule. The British aristocracy is portrayed as more complacent and detached, while the French nobility is depicted as oppressive and indifferent to the suffering of the common people, ultimately leading to the French Revolution.
Key Events in A Tale of Two Cities and the French Revolution
In A Tale of Two Cities, key events align with the turmoil of the French Revolution. The novel's climax occurs during Charles Darnay's trial in Paris, where a letter by Dr. Manette reveals Darnay's aristocratic lineage, sealing his fate. The French Revolution's significant events, such as the storming of the Bastille and the Reign of Terror, are reflected through characters like the Defarges, symbolizing the uprising against aristocratic tyranny. Dickens captures revolutionary fervor and the social upheaval in both settings of London and Paris.
Comparing the representation of revolutionaries and the use of the French Revolution in A Tale of Two Cities and Les Misérables
In A Tale of Two Cities, revolutionaries are depicted with a focus on their brutality and the chaos of the French Revolution, emphasizing themes of sacrifice and resurrection. In contrast, Les Misérables portrays revolutionaries more sympathetically, highlighting their idealism and the socio-economic injustices driving their actions, with the June Rebellion symbolizing hope and the quest for justice.
The influence of family dynamics on the plot and their relation to social life in A Tale of Two Cities
Family dynamics in A Tale of Two Cities significantly influence the plot and reflect broader social themes. The relationships between characters like the Manettes and the Evrémondes highlight themes of sacrifice, loyalty, and redemption, mirroring the tumultuous social changes of the French Revolution. These family interactions underscore the novel's exploration of personal and societal transformation.
Compare and Contrast
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1780s: By the end of the Enlightenment, the majority of educated individuals believed the universe was fundamentally understandable and governed by fixed laws that humans could comprehend.
1850s: Following the release of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species in 1859, conservative Victorians responded with a religious backlash opposing scientific progress.
Today: With advancements in technology like space travel and cloning, modern science seems capable of solving nearly any issue. However, as scientific specialization grows, few people possess extensive knowledge across various scientific fields.
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1780s: French intellectuals and philosophes such as the Marquis de Montesquieu advocated for an enlightened government system with balanced and divided powers.
1850s: After years of political stagnation, England began liberalizing its voting rights, extending the vote to all male citizens regardless of property ownership.
Today: With the fall of Communist regimes globally, the democratic model pioneered by the United States—on which the French Revolution was based—has become the template for most national governments.
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1780s: Anatomical science was so rudimentary that new bones were still being discovered in the human body. In 1784, German Romantic poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe identified one, later named the intermaxillary bone.
1850s: By this period in England, the practice of body-snatching, as conducted by Jerry Cruncher, had been obsolete for over twenty years due to Parliament's Anatomy Act of 1832.
Today: Modern medical science can replace parts of the human body with artificial bones or perform transplants using animal organs to replace failing human ones. The success of transplants has revived the demand for human organs, rekindling the trade of body-snatching.
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1780s: English sailors aboard H.M.S. Bounty mutinied in the South Pacific when Captain Bligh reduced their water ration to hydrate his cargo of breadfruit trees. The sailors hid on Pitcairn Island and went undiscovered for years.
1850s: European seafarers had charted most landmasses, and other Europeans began exploring the interiors of continents like Australia, North America, and Africa.
Today: Modern satellite technology can map the entire globe within a few days. Very few areas remain unknown to Europeans or their cultural descendants, the North Americans.
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1780s: During the French Revolution, drinking was widespread across all societal classes.
1850s: The "temperance movement," primarily in Protestant countries like the English commonwealth and the United States, condemned alcohol consumption and sought to abolish drinking on moral grounds.
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