began when a group of political activists in Paris, opposing several Third Republic policies, organized a revolt against the new government. Revolutionaries, known as the communards, established a municipal government termed the Commune of Paris. Similar communes emerged in other cities but were swiftly suppressed by the French government. Huysmans, who held a minor government position during and after the Franco-German War, fled with the government to Versailles during the Paris Commune. Meanwhile, Rimbaud, still a teenager and unpublished, ran away from home to join the Paris Commune. After three weeks, he returned home, narrowly avoiding the violent conflict that followed when government forces crushed the rebellion during the "Bloody Week." In retaliation, the communards executed hostages, including the archbishop of Paris, and set fire to significant municipal buildings. Approximately 20,000 rebels and 750 government troops were killed during the "Bloody Week," with around 45,000 insurrectionists arrested or deported. The defeat of the Paris Commune effectively stifled political dissent in France for years. Disillusioned by this defeat, Rimbaud shifted his focus from political activism to writing. Huysmans returned to Paris with other government officials after the insurrection was quelled.

Free Verse

Free verse, or Vers libre, emerged from the symbolist poets as a style of poetry free from the conventional constraints of French verse, such as rhyme and meter. The symbolists believed that a poem's form should naturally arise from its content rather than conform to traditional rules. Consequently, free verse often mirrors the rhythms of casual speech. French symbolist poets like Jules Laforgue (1860–1887) and Gustave Kahn (1859–1936) pioneered this form in the 1880s. Due to the influence of symbolist poetry, free verse became a hallmark of modern poetry in the twentieth century. T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound are among the early English-speaking poets who embraced free verse.

Musicality of Language

Symbolist authors were particularly passionate about highlighting the musical elements of language. They crafted works of lyrical beauty, where language intertwined with imagery to produce a symphony of mood and suggestion. Verlaine and Mallarmé are especially celebrated for the musicality in their poetry. In Russian verse, Blok infused his ballad The Twelve with musicality. In drama, Maeterlinck's plays are distinguished for the musical attributes of their dialogue.

Mood

The symbolists concentrated on invoking a powerful mood through their use of language. Emotions such as longing, regret, a sense of loss, and contemplation often permeate symbolist literature. The poets aimed to evoke particular moods by expressing nuanced inner states of mind. In symbolist fiction and drama, the plot is secondary to the mood or atmosphere that the work creates.

The Fairy Tale

Several symbolist writers drew inspiration from traditional folktales and fairy tales in their poetry, fiction, and plays. For instance, Maeterlinck incorporated elements from popular folktales in his plays The Princess Maleine and Pelleas and Melisande, crafting dramas set in classic fairytale landscapes with characters from folk literature. Rimbaud extensively utilized the fairy tale in experimental narrative poems that reinvent this traditional genre.

International Influence

The Symbolist movement, which originated in France, significantly impacted global literature during the 19th and 20th centuries. Poets of the Russian Symbolist movement arose in the 1890s, influenced by French Symbolist poetry translations. Russian Symbolism is one of the pioneering literary movements marking Russia's "Silver Age," a time of exceptional intellectual and literary accomplishments. The evolution of Russian Symbolist literature drew inspiration from the works of Russian philosopher and poet Vladimir Solovyov (1853–1900), alongside French Symbolist writings. The Russian Symbolist movement is considered to have started with Dmitry Merezhkovsky's 1893 essay “On the Reasons for the Decline and on the New Trends in Contemporary Russian Literature.”

Russian Symbolist literature unfolded in two phases. The first phase featured poet Valery Bryusov (1873–1924), who translated French Symbolist poems into Russian and was seen as a leader of Russian Symbolism, along with poet Zinaida Gippius (1869–1945) and poet-novelist Fyodor Sologub. The second phase is linked to three significant literary figures: Aleksandr Blok, Vyacheslav Ivanov, and Andrey Bely. Blok, hailed as one of the 20th century's greatest Russian poets, is renowned for his Symbolist verse ballad The Twelve, a religious parable set during the Russian Revolution. Vyacheslav Ivanov (1866–1949) is recognized as a Symbolist poet and a key theoretical influence on Russian Symbolism. Andrey Bely (1880–1934) is acclaimed for his Symbolist novel Petersburg.

Although other nations did not always develop distinct Symbolist movements, Symbolism significantly influenced the modernist literature of various countries. English literature, for instance, was notably shaped by Symbolism, impacting poets like T. S. Eliot and W. B. Yeats, as well as novelists James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. The Imagist movement in American and English poetry, initiated by Ezra Pound and others, was also inspired by Symbolism. German writers, especially poet Rainer Maria Rilke and novelist Thomas Mann, were influenced by Symbolism, which also affected Japanese and Turkish literature.

Theatre

Symbolist theatre emerged in France alongside the works of Symbolist playwrights. In 1890, Paul Fort established the Theatre d’Art in Paris, which showcased Symbolist drama. Following Fort's death in 1892, Aurelien Lugne-Poe founded the Theatre de l’Oeuvre from Theatre d’Art. Symbolist theatre was heavily influenced by Mallarmé's literary ideals. These theatrical productions opposed realist drama in staging, costumes, and performance style. The impact of Symbolist painting was evident in the use of backdrops and stage sets to convey Symbolist ideals by creating specific moods and internal states of mind, rather than depicting realistic scenes. Maeterlinck is the most renowned Symbolist playwright. Other notable Symbolist playwrights include French writers Auguste Villiers de L’Isle-Adam (1838–1889) and Paul Claudel (1868–1955).

Painting

Symbolist painting played a crucial role in the evolution of modern art, similar to how symbolist poetry influenced modern literature. Emerging as a counter-movement to Realism and Impressionism, symbolist painters drew inspiration from symbolist poetry. Their focus was on portraying realms of dreams, mythology, fantasy, and imagination, aiming to visually express inner emotions and personal states of mind. Key figures in symbolist painting include Odilon Redon (1840–1916), known for his close friendship with Mallarmé, as well as Gustave Moreau (1826–1898) and Puvis de Chavannes (1824–1898).

Music

Symbolism had a profound impact on twentieth-century music composition, most notably influencing French composers Claude Debussy (1862–1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875–1937). Like Baudelaire and other symbolist poets, Debussy was deeply inspired by Edgar Allan Poe's short stories. His renowned piece, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894), draws from Mallarmé’s The Afternoon of a Faun. Moreover, Debussy transformed Maeterlinck’s Pelleas and Melisande into an opera, featuring a libretto by Maeterlinck himself, which premiered in 1902. Ravel also engaged with Mallarmé’s poetry, translating it into music in his 1913 vocal work Trois poèmes de Stephane Mallarmé (Three Poems by Stephane Mallarmé).

1850–1900: France undergoes numerous internal uprisings and significant governmental transformations during this period. The Second Republic, a constitutional democracy led by a president, spans from the Revolution of 1848 to 1852. The Second Empire, under Emperor Napoleon III, maintains relative stability from 1852 to 1870. Following this, the Third Republic, another constitutional democracy with a presidential system, remains stable from 1871 until the German occupation in 1940.

Today: The current French government, referred to as the Fifth Republic, is a constitutional democracy headed by a president. Established in 1959, the Fifth Republic has maintained its stability for over four decades.

1850–1900: During this period, France is involved in various wars and forms alliances with other European countries. In the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856, France allies with England and Turkey against Russia. In the Franco-German War from 1870 to 1871, France is invaded and defeated by Germany. In 1894, France enters the dual alliance with Russia, agreeing to support each other against aggression from the triple alliance (1882) of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Today: France is a member of the European Union, alongside Germany, England, Austria, Italy, and other nations. The EU comprises about fifteen independent European countries that collaborate on social, political, economic, and legal matters to foster peaceful and mutually beneficial relationships.

1850–1900: Following the Revolution of 1848, France implements universal manhood suffrage, allowing all adult men to vote in political elections and referenda. Today: Since 1945, both women and men in France have been granted the right to vote.

1850–1900: Unlike many European countries, Russia does not undergo a revolution in 1848 and remains a vast empire under the autocratic rule of a czar until the 1917 revolution. In 1861, a significant social reform is enacted, emancipating the serfs, who were essentially peasant slaves, and granting them the right to own land.

Today: After approximately seventy years of communist governance since 1917, the USSR is dissolved in 1991, resulting in the formation of about twelve independent nation-states, with Russia being the largest and most influential. The countries of the former Soviet Union continue to maintain strong connections through the Commonwealth of Independent States, established in 1991.

The Afternoon of a Faun Published by Mallarmé in 1876, The Afternoon of a Faun is a landmark in symbolist poetry. This piece delves into the interplay between the tangible world and an imagined realm of ideal beauty and perfection. It also examines themes of sensuality, passion, and physical experiences, exploring how they gain meaning through contemplation and self-reflection.

Against the Grain

Against the Grain, a novel by Huysmans, was released in 1884 and is hailed as the pinnacle of symbolist fiction. The narrative follows a wealthy, sensitive man who retreats from Paris to seclude himself from society. He isolates himself in a lavish countryside residence, avoiding all human contact, even instructing his servants to remain unseen. Huysmans focuses more on the protagonist's mental state than on the story's plot. Like symbolist poets, he seeks to explore the individual's inner spiritual and psychological world through his writing. His prose, bordering on the poetic, uses language in innovative ways that align with symbolist principles. With this novel, Huysmans boldly departed from the Realism and Naturalism of his literary mentor, the renowned French novelist Emile Zola. His admiration for symbolist poets is reflected in the story when the protagonist reads works by Baudelaire, Mallarmé, and Verlaine.

Flowers of EvilFlowers of Evil by Baudelaire served as a key literary influence for symbolist poets and remains one of the most esteemed pieces of nineteenth-century French poetry. These poems encapsulate the core tenets of Symbolism. Although Baudelaire preceded the symbolist movement, Flowers of Evil is regarded as a significant symbolist poetry collection. The initial edition, featuring 100 poems, was published in 1857, followed by an expanded edition in 1861 with 126 poems. This 1861 edition is organized into six sections: “Spleen et Ideal” (“Spleen and the Ideal”), “Tableaux Parisians” (“Parisian Tableaus”), “Le Vin” (“Wine”), “Fleurs du mal” (“Flowers of Evil”), “Révolte” (“Revolt”), and “La Mort” (“Death”). In Flowers of Evil, Baudelaire retains traditional poetic structures while innovating with themes and imagery. The poems explore themes of original sin, beauty, love, death, and the balance between sensuality and spirituality. They discuss the spiritual and physical love of women, the influence of Satan, and the inherent spiritual struggles of human existence. The section “Parisian Tableaus,” added in the 1861 edition, features poems about Paris, recognized as the first modern urban poetry. The collection includes Baudelaire’s renowned poem, “Le Cygne” (“The Swan”), where the memory of a swan, escaping from the zoo and stranded near the Louvre, symbolizes human feelings of alienation and loss, themes prevalent in modern literature. Other notable poems in this volume include “La Chevelure” (“The Head of Hair”) and “Correspondences.”

Illuminations

Arthur Rimbaud’s Illuminations is hailed as a landmark in symbolist prose poetry. Composed of forty-two prose poems initially created in 1873, the collection wasn't published until 1886, when Rimbaud was exploring the world. Paul Verlaine, who was entrusted with the manuscript, could not reach Rimbaud and released the work without his consent. Rimbaud might never have witnessed its publication. In Illuminations, Rimbaud refined the prose poem to align with the symbolist approach. His innovative use of language, punctuation, and informal structure is remarkably experimental, often leaving readers puzzled over the poems’ meanings and critics divided on interpreting the work. Rimbaud's themes delve into the significance of childhood perceptions, the journey as a metaphor, the spirit of rebellion, and nature's mysteries. He often concludes his poems with a singular, impactful line that is both compelling and mysterious.

Pelleas and Melisande

Pelleas and Melisande, by Maeterlinck, is recognized as the pinnacle of symbolist drama. First staged in 1893, this five-act play employs a fairytale backdrop and follows Princess Melisande, whose intense love for her husband’s brother leads to inevitable tragedy. While the plot and characters are relatively straightforward, the play conveys a strong sense of yearning through language distinguished by its musicality.

Songs without Words

Verlaine’s Songs without Words, published in 1874, is a poetry collection that encapsulates the musicality of the French language. The volume contains twenty-one poems organized into four sections: “Ariettes oubliées” (“Forgotten Ariettas”), “Paysages belges” (“Belgian Landscapes”), “Birds in the Night” (originally titled in English), and “Arquarelles” (“Watercolors”). The poems' tone is deeply personal, expressing emotions of passion, guilt, regret, and nostalgia. These works were penned during Verlaine’s travels with Rimbaud to Belgium and England, reflecting his conflicted feelings about the wife he left behind and his emotions for Rimbaud. The first edition of Songs without Words was published while Verlaine was imprisoned after shooting Rimbaud in the wrist during a lover’s quarrel. Initially, Verlaine dedicated the volume to Rimbaud, but the dedication was omitted from the published edition due to the scandal surrounding Verlaine’s relationship with Rimbaud.

The Twelve

The Twelve, a verse ballad by Blok, was released in 1918 and is regarded as a quintessential work of Russian symbolist poetry. It narrates the story of twelve ruthless Red Guards wreaking havoc during the St. Petersburg uprising of 1917 and 1918. The Twelve is acclaimed for Blok’s linguistic style, which merges vernacular speech with musicality, capturing both harsh vulgarities and subtle moods.

Claude Debussy adapted Maeterlinck’s Pelleas and Melisande into an opera in 1902, using a libretto written by Maeterlinck himself.

Sources

Baudelaire, Charles, The Parisian Prowler: Le Spleen de Paris, Petits poèmes en prose, translated by Edward K. Kaplan, University of Georgia Press, 1989, pp. 129–130.

Kaplan, Edward K., ed., Preface, in The Parisian Prowler: Le Spleen de Paris, Petits poèmes en prose, University of Georgia Press, 1989, pp. x–xi.

Simic, Charles, “The Poetry of Village Idiots,” in Verse, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1996, pp. 7–8, quoted in The Best of “The Prose Poem: An International Journal,” edited by Peter Johnson, White Pine Press, 2000, p. 13.

Truesdale, C. W., Preface, in The Party Train: A Collection of North American Prose Poetry, edited by Robert Alexander, Mark Vinz, and C. W. Truesdale, New Rivers Press, 1996, p. xix.

Further Reading

Carter, A. E., Paul Verlaine, Twayne, 1971. Carter delivers an authoritative biography of Paul Verlaine, one of the pioneers of the French symbolist movement in poetry.

Eisenman, Stephen, The Temptations of Saint Redon: Biography, Ideology, and Style in the Noirs of Odilon Redon, University of Chicago Press, 1992. Eisenman explores thematic and stylistic elements in the symbolist works of Odilon Redon, a prominent French symbolist artist.

Fowlie, Wallace, Rimbaud and Jim Morrison: The Rebel as Poet, Duke University Press, 1993. Fowlie compares the nineteenth-century French symbolist poet Rimbaud with the 1960s American rock star Jim Morrison. He suggests both Rimbaud and Morrison conveyed a similar rebellious spirit in their art and are seen as modern antiheroes.

Kolakowski, Leszek, The Alienation of Reason: A History of Positivist Thought, Doubleday, 1968. Kolakowski provides a historical overview of positivist thinking's evolution. The symbolist movement emerged partly as a counter-movement to the positivist ideals of rationality, objectivity, and scientific methodology that dominated nineteenth-century intellectual thought.

Lacambre, Geneviève, Gustave Moreau: Magic and Symbols, Harry N. Abrams, 1999. Lacambre discusses the life and works of Gustave Moreau, a significant French symbolist painter.

Millan, Gordon, A Throw of the Dice: The Life of Stephen Mallarmé, Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1994. Millan offers a biography of Stephen Mallarmé, a French symbolist poet.

Peyre, Henri, Baudelaire: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, 1962. Peyre presents critical essays on the poetry of Baudelaire, a major French poet often recognized as the grandfather of Symbolism.

Robb, Graham, Rimbaud, W. W. Norton & Co., 2000. Robb provides a biography of Rimbaud, a key figure in French symbolist poetry.