Historical Context
The Birth of a Nation: Arreola's Mexico
Arreola entered the world just a year after the Mexican Revolution's echoes were quieted, a time when leaders like Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa roamed the land, championing the cause of peasants. This era marked a call to arms for a society eager to forge a new path, embracing the redistribution of land and the empowerment of citizens in choosing their destiny. Arreola's formative years unfolded against a backdrop of sweeping social reforms, ushering in a vibrant new chapter for the Mexican people. The freshly minted constitution, born only a year before his birth, heralded drastic changes, introducing a labor code that empowered workers with the right to organize and strike. Moreover, it imposed presidential term limits and clipped the wings of the Roman Catholic Church, curtailing its vast land holdings and influence over education.
As the 1920s and 1930s dawned, the waves of social and land reform continued to sculpt the nation, restoring communal lands to Native Americans. Despite the winds of change, the political landscape remained rife with corruption, marred by bribery, concessions, and assassinations, sparking fierce controversies. In 1926, the Catholic Church retaliated with a bold strike, halting religious services and inciting the Cristero Rebellion, a three-year clash claiming the lives of at least 90,000 Mexicans in the struggle for power between secular and ecclesiastical forces. The 1930s saw further land reform, birthing communal farms and seizing private assets for public good. Yet, the rugged Mexican terrain posed challenges for transportation, particularly between the western coastal plains and central highlands. The nationalization of railways in 1937, part of political reform efforts, fell short of expectations, rendering Mexican railroads a lasting symbol of half-hearted reform.
Cultural Shifts and Modern Struggles
The years spanning the Revolution to World War II bore witness to a literary landscape dominated by escapist fantasies or stark realism that chronicled societal transformation. However, the Second World War sparked a global awakening to humanity's newfound destructive power. On May 22, 1942, Mexico aligned with the U.S. against the Axis powers, redirecting its focus from internal reshaping to a broader, global perspective, and paving the way for fresh literary movements in the country. As Ross Larson notes in Fantasy and Imagination in the Mexican Narrative, young writers like Juan José Arreola and later Carlos Fuentes dared to break free from the stronghold of Spanish regionalistic realism, opting for symbolic storytelling to unveil alternate realities.
The postwar era, during which "The Switchman" was penned, witnessed a shift in industrial and agricultural dynamics and the rise of the middle class. These transformations, however, widened the chasm between the affluent and the impoverished, with social inequality steadily on the rise. The 1960s saw waves of social unrest akin to activism in the U.S., and by the 1970s, unchecked urban growth and population surges led to unemployment and rampant malnutrition. Political corruption, crushing foreign debts, oil market woes, and government ties to drug trafficking have continually beleaguered Mexico, deteriorating the quality of life for many. Consequently, a significant migration across U.S. borders in search of work ensued.
The 1990s ushered in a new chapter of upheaval, with the Zapatista Army of National Liberation's uprisings demanding economic and political overhaul. During this turbulent decade, NAFTA agreements between Canada, Mexico, and the U.S. sought to tear down trade barriers, intertwining the destinies of these neighboring nations.
Style and Technique
Point of View
"The Switchman" unfolds through the lens of a third-person narrator, whose voice remains neutral and detached. We only catch a fleeting glimpse of the stranger's inner world when he is described as "dejected and thoughtful." Beyond this...
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brief insight, understanding of the characters' emotions and thoughts is gleaned solely through their dialogue. The stranger, fraught with anxiety, peppers the old man with questions, while the latter responds with a stark, unembellished certainty. This narrative style is emblematic of existential literature, particularly reminiscent of Kafka, and infuses the tale with a sense of urgency. For the majority of the narrative, readers align themselves with the stranger, whose bewildered reactions mirror their own as he navigates the absurd narrative spun by the old man. However, this connection is severed when the stranger alters his destination and fully embraces his role as a traveler by the story's end. This acquiescence to the whimsical world of the rails leaves the reader adrift, pondering the absurdity's implications on their own existence.
Construction
The architecture of "The Switchman" is inherently tied to its title, weaving a
back-and-forth tapestry between the two men's conversation. The opening and
closing scenes bookend the dialogue, depicting the stranger's arrival at the
station and the old man's departure, his lantern flickering as he fades into
the distance. Apart from these moments, the narrative is a lively exchange
between the stranger's probing questions and the old man's candid responses.
This dialogue forms a dual narrative: the old man's fantastical tale about the
railroad and the broader narrative of the stranger, transformed by the surreal
account. Readers naturally resonate with the stranger's skepticism, as the old
man's story defies belief. Yet, the stranger's decision to change his
destination in light of the tale disrupts this identification, enhancing the
absurdity of both narratives. Such construction aligns with existentialist
writers like Kafka, whose straightforward storytelling underscores the inherent
absurdity of their subjects.
Symbolism
The switchman, as suggested by the title, serves as a potent symbol within the
story. At first glance, one might assume the title refers to the old man, who
appears to be a railroad employee. His lantern, though "so small it appears to
be a toy," symbolizes his role, though its diminutive size questions his
authority and hints at a playful charade. Traditionally, a switchman guides
trains from one track to another, serving as a beacon at a crossroads.
Similarly, the old man acts as a guide for the stranger, illuminating the
complexities of the rail system and influencing him to literally "switch
tracks" and alter his journey's course. Intriguingly, the switchman is both
retired and inexperienced as a traveler, casting doubt on his credibility. This
twist suggests an alternate interpretation of 'switchman'—one who switches, as
the stranger does. This nuanced reading of the title encourages readers to
consider the broader implications of both the old man's narrative and the
overarching story.
Railroads, as a mode of transportation, embody travel, progress, and forward momentum. Yet, trains' movement is confined to forward and backward, implying a restricted view of advancement. The old man paints a picture of an improved rail system, bolstered by ticket sales and schedules. In reality, however, the system barely functions; the notion of traversing the nation by rail is but a patriotic myth. The railroad, then, serves as a metaphor for public transportation in Mexico, renowned for its inefficiencies, and more broadly, for progress hindered by a relentless maintenance of appearances.
Literary Heritage
Mexican literature is a rich tapestry woven from numerous cultural strands. It
is a vibrant confluence of indigenous peoples, African descendants brought
during the slave trade, and Spanish conquistadors who arrived in 1519, toppling
the Aztec empire. Early Mexican works include Mayan oral histories, with the
earliest written records being pre-Columbian texts like the Chilam
Balam and Popol Vuh, which preserve Mayan myths and legends.
During this period, Spanish works primarily covered two themes: missionary
writings and the conquistadors' chronicles. Conquistador literature documented
events, geography, and encounters with indigenous peoples, often through
journals, annals, and letters sent to Spain. Hernan Cortes's letters, titled
Cartas de Relacion, are among the earliest examples. Missionaries
chronicled their evangelical missions to convert indigenous populations to
Christianity. Notably, writing for personal pleasure was rare during the
initial century of colonization. Poetry preceded prose in New Spain, with early
poetic works dating back to the late 1500s, including a collection of Christmas
carols meant to aid in conversion efforts. Theater also debuted in the late
sixteenth century as part of religious ceremonies, initially performed by
clergy acting out sacred narratives, but by the seventeenth century, both
religious and secular plays were performed in public spaces by professional
actors.
The fusion of diverse cultures has given rise to the mestizo, a person of mixed heritage, who has emerged as the predominant ethnic group since the late 1800s. This rich tapestry is vividly woven into the fabric of modern Mexican literature. The genre of Magical Realism, which today captivates readers worldwide, finds its origins in European literature. It is often linked to Kafka's seamless integration of the fantastical into the mundane, where the extraordinary is presented with an air of nonchalance, leaving readers marveling at its absurdity.
Over the past half-century, Magical Realism has become a defining feature of Latin American narratives. It fits comfortably within Mexican literature just as it does across the broader Latin American landscape, merging the fantastical with the ordinary. Here, the dramatic essence of Catholic spirituality intertwines with the enchanting myths and legends of Native American traditions. This seamless incorporation of mysticism into day-to-day existence breathes life into the literature, making the extraordinary a natural part of the narrative fabric.
Compare and Contrast
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1953: Under the leadership of President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, Mexico ushers in a historic change by amending its constitution to grant women the right to vote. This monumental leap forward marks a pivotal moment since the Mexican Revolution, when citizens first gained the power to choose their leaders.
Today: While every citizen in Mexico possesses the right to vote, the pervasive government corruption casts a shadow over the electoral process, making many view their votes as impotent.
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1947: Miguel Alemán Valdés, breaking the mold as the first post-revolutionary Mexican president without military ties, embarks on a groundbreaking journey to the U.S. as head of state. His visit symbolizes a bid to enhance foreign trade relations.
1994: A significant moment unfolds as Mexico joins hands with the U.S. and Canada, forging the NAFTA treaty, a strategic alliance designed to fulfill the trade aspirations of these three nations.
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1950s: The post-war era in Mexico is characterized by a burgeoning industrial and agricultural landscape. Echoing the prosperity of the United States during the same period, this decade witnesses the rise of a burgeoning middle class.
Today: Mexican society, however, paints a stark contrast with its sprawling lower class, where poverty and malnourishment have become distressingly commonplace.
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1930s and 1940s: The nation's gaze turns inward, focusing on land redistribution efforts to empower the peasantry through communal farming initiatives.
Today: In stark contrast, Mexico grapples with unbridled urban expansion, leading to sprawling slums engulfing urban peripheries and staggering levels of air and water pollution.
Bibliography
Sources
Arreola, Juan José. Confabulario and Other Inventions, translated by
George D. Schade. University of Texas Press, 1964, pp. 78-85.
Davila, Luis, ed. Juan José Arreola, Twayne's World Authors Series. Indiana University, 1983. pp. 49-53.
Larson, Ross. Fantasy and Imagination in the Mexican Narrative. Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University, 1977, pp. 102-03.
Pulsipher, Curtis D. The Use of the Fantastic, Neo-Fantastic, Animals and Humor as Vehicles for Satire in the Works of Juan José Arreola and Murilo Rubiao. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1985, pp. 186, 192.
Further Reading
Menton, Seymour. Magic Realism Rediscovered, 1918-1981. Art Alliance
Press, 1983. Menton, an authority on all things Latin American, discusses the
way Magical Realism is manifested in twentieth-century Latin American
literature.
Pena, Carlo Gonzales. History of Mexican Literature. Southern Methodist University Press, 1968. A thorough overview of Mexican literature through 1943, including an in-depth discussion of Spanish colonialism on all kinds of Mexican writing.
Washburn, Yulan M. Juan José Arreola. Twayne, 1983. More criticism and interpretation on the author.
