connected to the theme of survival, affecting not only individuals but also indigenous cultures as they navigate the profound changes and challenges brought about by the European conquest of the Americas. In McNickle's fiction, as well as in reality, the development of the "new" Indian is a complicated and demanding journey that resists easy generalizations and cultural assumptions. What occurs when indigenous communities are confronted by invaders with starkly different worldviews who invade their territories and displace them? The Europeans, who were aggressive and exploitative, arrived in the New World intent on claiming the land, exploiting its resources, annihilating or enslaving its native populations (both human and animal), and imposing their spiritual and cultural beliefs on Native Americans. Many Native Americans, confused by the invaders' actions, responded in various ways to the relentless destruction of their lifestyles. They defended themselves through warfare, accommodation, and retreat. For instance, the Salish people, led by Running Wolf, Archilde's grandfather, sent emissaries to St. Louis three times, asking for Jesuit missionaries to come to the Sniel-emen valley. When the missionaries arrived, the chief and his people welcomed them and converted to Christianity. Archilde's mother, baptized as Catharine Le Loup and known as Faithful Catharine, was just four years old at the time. However, in her later years, she "looked upon a chaotic world—so many things dead, so many words for which she knew no meaning; . . . she could not understand the ruin that had overtaken her." She withdrew from Christian faith and practices, seeking comfort in her original cultural traditions and beliefs while facing the loss of her sons, husband, and community.

Three additional themes enrich the novel's narrative. The enduring conflict between Max Leon and his sons is a classic theme, both in literature and real life. Today's terminology might describe the family as "dysfunctional." Max's sons remain emotionally distant from him, and he struggles to comprehend the reason. Max's neighbor, rancher Emile Pariseau, confronts him about his son Louis, who has stolen horses. Frustrated by Louis's actions and unresolved issues with his other sons, Max angrily proclaims that he wouldn't mind if they all ended up in prison, condemning everyone except Archilde. He clings to the hope that at least one son will be honorable and capable of managing his vast ranching and farming enterprises. Yet, when Archilde returns home, Max dismisses his interest in playing the fiddle, doubting that even his youngest son has the potential he desires. To Max's surprise, Archilde takes a job during the wheat harvest, hinting at a possible reconciliation. This prompts Max to consider naming Archilde as his sole heir. Midway through the book, a pivotal conversation between Archilde and Max leads to a full reconciliation, suggesting that disaster might be averted. Max plans to send Archilde to Europe to study music, thereby shielding him from the dangers posed by Sheriff Quigley and Agent Parker. However, Archilde becomes romantically involved with Elise La Rose, a rebellious and free-spirited young woman. Their ill-fated and impossible love, reminiscent of the relationship between Angel Clare and Tess in Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles, along with his devotion to his mother, keeps Archilde at home and creates yet another complex entanglement.

The theme of unintended consequences is woven throughout the novel, most prominently during the hunting excursion that Archilde and his mother embark on at her insistence, and in the detailed dialogue between Father Grepilloux and Max Leon at the Mission of St. Xavier in chapters four and five. Although Archilde feels a sense of foreboding, he agrees to take his mother hunting because he has become more connected to her and wishes to bring her joy. Despite his doubts, Max makes sure they are well-equipped, and they embark on their journey at the start of October. Unfortunately, the mountains offer no game. After two fruitless days, they find comfort in attempting "to go backward in time." Soon after, they encounter Sheriff Quigley, an intimidating presence who claims he is "looking for a horse thief" but does not arrest the hunting party. The next day, they stumble upon deer tracks, set up camp, and are unexpectedly joined by Louis, who, "child that he was," is oblivious to the fact that the sheriff is searching for him, even though he knows horse theft is no longer culturally acceptable. The following day, Louis shoots a doe because does are tender and good for eating. When the game warden, another representative of white authority and law, arrives and tries to arrest Louis, a catastrophe ensues. The warden mistakenly thinks Louis is reaching for his rifle and shoots him. Their mother then attacks the warden with a hatchet. The story takes an unforeseen and tragic turn, leading to inevitable consequences for everyone involved.

The second illustration of this theme is depicted through the experiences of Father Grepilloux and Max Leon, as revealed in their conversation. Despite having dedicated their lives to introducing "civilization," a spiritual core, and prosperity to the valley—in Euramerican terms—both men are disillusioned by the outcomes of their endeavors. Max is alienated from all his sons, including Archilde, and Father Grepilloux, who has grown old in his committed service to the Church and the Salish people, is the only person with whom Max can confide his troubles and anxieties. Neither can predict the future any better than anyone else; both acknowledge that the current condition of the Salish people is not what the Jesuit missionaries had intended. They realize that the Euramerican colonization of the valley has unleashed a cascade of dire consequences upon the people, which they were powerless to avert, even with the Church's assistance.

The narrative is propelled by three crucial scenes that illustrate the unfolding consequences. The first scene occurs during a hunting trip in the mountains involving Archilde, his mother, and his elder brother, Louis. Louis returns to camp with a doe, but a game warden arrives to arrest them for hunting illegally. Misinterpreting Louis's movement as reaching for a rifle to resist arrest, rather than complying with the order to "pack up," the warden shoots him. Archilde cries out, "You fool! You've killed him," to which the warden replies, "I got him first, and damned lucky!" This incident highlights the rampant racial prejudice of the 1870s and 1880s, epitomized by the phrase, "The only good Indian is a dead Indian." The warden's killing of Louis sets off a chain of tragic events. Archilde's mother, Catharine, avenges her son by striking the warden with a hatchet. Instead of burying both her son and the warden traditionally, she demands that Archilde hide the warden's grave and return Louis's body for a proper Christian burial. Out of loyalty to his mother, Archilde complies, but the warden's disappearance leads to his detention by the Indian agent.

The second pivotal scene unfolds following the death of Father Grepilloux. Max Leon reflects on the virtuous life and tireless efforts of his friend, who labored "like a peasant" to assist both the Native Americans and white settlers. Despite these efforts, the Native Americans remain entrenched in poverty and despair while European Americans swarm "into this sheltered valley, a paradise in its original state." The novel's third and climactic scene depicts Elise killing Sheriff Quigley, who unexpectedly encounters her, the two boys, and Archilde in the mountains.

Archilde finds himself trapped. After returning home, he is unable to leave. His commitment to his mother ensnares him when he accompanies her on a hunting trip in the mountains, leading to disastrous outcomes. Catharine, caught between the conflicting cultural values of the Catholic Fathers and traditional Salish beliefs, unwittingly seals the tragic fate of her sons through her actions.

Archilde reconciles with his father, Max Leon, shortly before Max dies from exposure suffered while serving as a pallbearer for his best friend, Father Grepilloux. Despite understanding the personal risks involved, Archilde stays home after Max's death. He feels a duty to take on his father's responsibilities by tending to the crops and becoming a responsible steward of the land.

His relationship with Elise La Rose adds further complexity to his situation. As Elise herself remarks, "When you start lugging me around your hard times are going to begin."