Historical Context
Sundiata's Dynasty: The Keita Clan
Sundiata was not the inaugural ruler from the Keita family over the Malinke people. The Keita lineage began in the eighth century and has persisted into the late twentieth century, with the Keita still serving as chiefs of the Kangaba province. Leadership is typically passed from father to son. However, if the heir is too young to govern, a close relative on the father's side assumes the role until the child matures. This scenario seems to have occurred with Sundiata's own son. Manding Bory, who was Sundiata's step-brother and closest ally, governed Mali for a time following Sundiata's death in 1255.
Islam made its way into Mali when a Malinke king converted around 1050. Malinke griots have long asserted that the Keita are descendants of Bilal ibn Rabah, a companion of Muhammad and the first mu'adhdhin (the caller to prayer). This connection to the Prophet's companion lends their rule an air of divine legitimacy. According to these griots, Bilal ibn Rabah's grandson traveled to Mali and became the first Keita.
The Rise of the Empire of Mali
Before Sundiata's time, Mali was a minor kingdom, initially under the dominion of the King of Ghana and later under Soumaoro Kante, the king of Sosso. Much of the historical knowledge available today comes from the epic Sundiata, which exists in various forms across several nations. Over time, additional elements have been incorporated into Sundiata's tale, attributing the deeds of other Malinke kings to him. One narrative describes Sundiata as the twelfth son of Maghan Kon Fatta. Soumaoro Kante is said to have killed the other eleven sons, sparing the frail Sundiata, who was not seen as a threat. In this account, Sundiata regains the use of his legs just in time to defeat Soumaoro at the Battle of Krina.
The Battle of Krina is believed to have occurred in 1235. Following this battle, Sundiata emerged as the ruler of a vast empire encompassing much of what is now West Africa. Details about Sundiata's fate after his victory at Krina are uncertain. Some accounts suggest he was struck down by an arrow during a military exhibition, while others claim he drowned near his hometown of Niani. The precise lineage of Sundiata is also unclear. To flatter their audiences, griots sometimes add the names of spectators to the list of Sundiata's descendants. This practice allows prominent families to enhance their status by claiming descent from the legendary Sundiata himself.
Sundiata's Era: 1230-1255
Sundiata's influence on Mali's history was so profound that the entire thirteenth century is known as "Sundiata's Time" by the Malinke people. Following the battle at Krina, the territories that were conquered were organized into administrative divisions. The people of Soumaoro were enslaved, and some fled, eventually settling in what is now the Ivory Coast. A faction of the Keita clan stayed loyal to Sundiata's half-brother, Dankaran Touman, and they escaped to the south. The Malinke language spread throughout West Africa due to Sundiata's expanding empire.
Court Life
In Malinke society, the extended family has always been the fundamental social unit. The family head held multiple roles, including certain priestly duties, serving as a judge, managing communal property, and making decisions about family relationships. The village leader was simply the head of the family that had resided in the village the longest. This person acted as both village chief and priest. Sometimes, different villages were grouped together, as was the case with the Keita clan. Over time, the leader of a large group of villages came to be known as a king. He typically had several...
(This entire section contains 916 words.)
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wives, with the most senior wife receiving the highest respect in society.
Commoners showed great deference to their king. The king dined privately, and
his meals were shrouded in mystery. When in the presence of the king, subjects
would lie prostrate, covering their heads with dust and ashes. The king had a
spokesman for all public speaking. The court's etiquette demanded that subjects
maintain distance and respect towards the king.
Subjects could seek justice from the king. The court often employed scribes, but most of the king's orders were communicated orally. The king reinforced his authority by ensuring his vassals adhered strictly to his commands. It was common for the sons of vassal kings to live at the court, as illustrated by Sundiata at the court of Mema. The court included slaves who were loyal to the king, and at times these slaves held positions of greater power than some noblemen. Another significant group within the court were the jelis, or griots. These men were trusted advisors to the king and preserved the oral history of the monarchy.
Economy and Daily Life
The salt and gold mines were significant sources of wealth for the people of Mali. The king usually collected taxes from the miners, which often made him very wealthy. During Sundiata's era, Mali was a crucial hub for trade. However, most of the population were farmers and had minimal involvement in international trade. Their crops included millet and sorghum. The land was often worked by the slave caste. Another caste, the blacksmiths, were considered noblemen. Other skilled workers, such as tanners and carpenters, were also held in high regard. Over time, textile production evolved into an art form. In addition to gold, cowry shells served as currency in Mali. By Sundiata's time, some historians suggest that the kola nut, known for its stimulating properties when chewed, had already gained the ceremonial importance it holds today in West Africa.
Literary Style
The tale of Sundiata has been passed down through generations of griots. These oral historians belong to a distinct caste and are uniquely authorized to recount the history entrusted to them by their ancestors. The griot Djeli Mamoudou Kouyate, who narrated the version of Sundiata written down by D. T. Niane, claims lineage from Sundiata's griot, Balla Faseke.
Young members of this caste are evaluated for their storytelling and performance skills and are trained to narrate or sing tales or play musical instruments. Women can also become griots. In Malinke culture, the spoken word is treated with suspicion because language can be manipulated to distort or misrepresent facts, placing griots in an ambiguous societal position. They are guardians of history, yet their words are not entirely trusted. Each griot holds a valuable secret: the truth of history, but each is known to intentionally adapt stories to captivate specific audiences. The story of Sundiata simultaneously enters both historical and fictional domains, with these two elements inseparable from each other.
Form and Style
As with many epics, Sundiata is designed to be sung and performed. The griot's role in crafting the epic is crucial; they must embellish the language and make the story engaging for the audience. Sundiata does not follow a consistent meter of stresses or syllables, and most versions are narrated in everyday vernacular. The audience typically does not participate, except to honor the griot with gifts at the performance's conclusion.
Language
The story of Sundiata is part of the oral literature of numerous West African tribes and appears in various languages. Djeli Mamoudou Kouyate narrated the tale to Djibril Tamsir Niane in Malinke, or Mandingo. Niane transcribed the story in that language and later translated it into French for its first publication in 1960. G. D. Pickett translated the epic into English in 1965, using both Niane's published French text and his original Malinke transcription.
Point of View
The perspective of the narrator, griot Mamoudou Kouyate, is essential to the epic. He repeatedly asserts his inherited right to recount the history of the Keita ruler, as he descends from the griot who served Sundiata. Throughout the story, the griot often refers to himself and highlights the significance of the griot's craft. The griot acts as an all-knowing narrator, capable of shifting perspectives to describe the thoughts and emotions as well as the actions of each character, and even stepping back to comment on the meaning or importance of events as they unfold.
Foreshadowing
Literary foreshadowing is a technique used to suggest future events, preparing the audience for upcoming revelations. In Sundiata, prophecy serves a similar, but even more explicit, purpose. Many significant events are predicted by seers or fortune-tellers before they occur. One foretells the King of Mali that his successor will be born to an unattractive woman brought to his court. Other soothsayers predict that the king's disabled son will become Mali's savior, despite how improbable it seems. Unlike foreshadowing, which subtly hints at future events, prophecies in this context clearly outline destiny's path. Although the king can choose to ignore these predictions, doing so means he will not father the heir that was prophesied. Additionally, African indigenous cultures are filled with cautionary tales about the misfortune that often befalls those who disregard prophecies and attempt to shape their own fates against what has been foreseen.
Grotesque
The epic incorporates elements of the grotesque. Sogolon, with her deformity—a hump likening her to a buffalo—repels men. Nevertheless, she is the only one capable of passing the buffalo's spirit to her future son. Soumaoro's chamber of fetishes is another instance of the grotesque. It is adorned with the heads of vanquished kings and the skins of his victims. Soumaoro derives magical power from these sinister symbols. However, this power is not invincible; stronger magic can dispel it. The grotesque imagery in the epic highlights different forms of power: Sogolon's aligned with good and Soumaoro's committed to evil.
Imagery and Symbolism
Animals are used as symbols for many characters in the story. Sogolon is known as the Buffalo Woman, embodying strength and lack of beauty. Maghan Kon Fatta is likened to a lion, characterized by his good looks and hunting skills. Sundiata inherits traits from both his parents and the animals symbolizing them. Soumaoro's lair of fetishes features a giant snake, symbolizing evil. Owls signify the night-flying witches of Mali.
Compare and Contrast
1200s: Sundiata unifies a vast empire that spans much of West Africa, incorporating various ethnic groups.
1900s: After years as a colony, Mali gains independence from France in 1960. The former French territories are split into numerous countries, often with contentious borders. A border dispute with Burkina Faso is not settled until 1986.
1200s: The Keita clan governs the Malinke people, and Sundiata's empire encompasses diverse ethnicities across West Africa. He organizes Mali into administrative districts while maintaining his role as the region's chief ruler.
1900s: Members of the Keita clan continue to lead a province in Mali, though the nation is now a republic.
1990s: Alpha Oumar Konare becomes president in 1992. Ibrahim Boubacar Keita serves as the Prime Minister of the government elected in 1994.
1200s: Mali is primarily an agricultural society, with gold and salt mining eventually adding to its trade resources. The cowry shell is the most common medium of exchange, with gold used occasionally.
1900s: Mali continues to be an agricultural nation, exporting gold, cotton, and livestock as its main commodities.
1990s: The currency in use in Mali is the CFA franc, shared by most nations in the former French West Africa.
1200s: Hunting is the primary activity of the ruling class. The Keitas are celebrated hunters, with Sundiata and his father often called "lions" for their prowess.
1900s: Increased human population, excessive hunting, and poaching by both Africans and Europeans result in a significant decline in Mali's wildlife.
1990s: Major conservation initiatives, including the establishment of two national wildlife preserves, focus on protecting Mali's natural heritage.
Media Adaptations
In the film Keita!, the tale of Sundiata is partly narrated by a master griot. This griot imparts a sense of self-worth to a young boy by recounting the story of his ancestor, Sundiata. Directed by Dani Kouyate, this 1994 film can be found on videocassette through California Newsreel. It features dialogue in Jula and French, with English subtitles.
A children's version of the epic, titled Sundiata: Lion King of Mali, was authored and beautifully illustrated by David Wisniewski in 1992. Clarion Books published this work.
The Disney animated feature The Lion King includes numerous elements from traditional African oral storytelling. The plot of the cartoon mirrors that of Sundiata in several ways.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources for Further Study
Biebuyck, Daniel P., "Heroic Songs of the Mande Hunters," in African Folklore, edited by Richard M. Dorson, Doubleday, 1972, pp. 275-93. Biebuyck provides an in-depth analysis of Sundiata and other African epics.
Camara Laye, The Guardian of the Word: Kouma Lafolo Kouma, translated by James Kirkup, Aventura, 1984, 223 p. This work examines African oral traditions, focusing on the griot's role within Mandingo culture.
Imperato, Pascal James, Historical Dictionary of Mali, Scarecrow Press, 1996, 362 p. This dictionary includes entries on many characters from Sundiata. Imperato's timeline of Mali outlines the nation's political and social transformations from its early history. The introduction provides insights into contemporary Mali, covering topics like resources, economy, and politics.
Levtzion, Nehemia. Ancient Ghana and Mali, New York, NY, Africana Publishing Company, 1980, 289 p. Written in English, this is one of the rare sources on the historical era of Sundiata. Levtzion examines various aspects of society, including life at court, the economy, and religious practices.
Miller, Christopher, "Orality Through Literacy: Mande Verbal Art after the Letter," in The Southern Review, Vol. 23, no. 1, Winter, 1987, pp. 84-105. Miller investigates the griot's role in Malian society and its portrayal in different versions of Sundiata.
Niane, Djibril Tamsir, Recherches sur l'Empire du Mali au Moyen Age, Presence Africaine, 1975, 112 p. This brief book, as of 1997 only available in French, details Niane's historical research before transcribing Kouyate's version of Sundiata. It documents the history of the Keita dynasty and Sundiata's remarkable achievements.
Pickett, G. D., translator, Sundiata: an epic of old Mali. Longman, 1973. Pickett translated the epic from D.T. Niane's French version, referencing Niane's original Malinke notes. The translation includes a brief preface from Niane's edition, explaining the art of the griot.
Shelton, A. J., "The Problem of Griot Interpretation and the Actual Causes of War in Soundjata" in Presence Africaine, n.s. 66, 1968, pp. 145-52. This work contrasts the historical and literary narratives of Sundiata's battles.
