In the aftermath of World War I, a cultural and intellectual upheaval reshaped the fabric of society, most vividly captured in the lives of American expatriates in Paris. The era was marked by a struggle to reconcile disillusionment with a desire for renewal, as artists and intellectuals grappled with a world forever altered by conflict. This period, often referred to as the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties, witnessed the emergence of new cultural movements and the rise of influential leaders, setting the stage for the complex socio-political landscape of the 20th century.

The Lost Generation: A Cultural Reawakening

The term "Lost Generation," coined by Gertrude Stein and popularized by Ernest Hemingway, described a group of American writers disenchanted with their homeland's values. Fleeing the constraints of American life, they settled in Paris, drawn by the favorable exchange rate and the city's aura of creative freedom. There, they found solace in the company of literary figures such as Gertrude Stein and Ezra Pound, who served as mentors and inspirations.

“The Lost Generation” succeeded in poking through the rubble of civilization and manufacturing art anew. From war’s negation comes affirmation as a means to live with disillusionment.

This group of expatriates, including T.S. Eliot, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and e.e. cummings, sought to redefine art and literature, challenging traditional norms. Their collective efforts were instrumental in rejuvenating Western culture, paving the way for the hopeful idealism that would characterize American literature in the ensuing decades.

The Roaring Twenties: A Time of Transition

While Paris thrummed with artistic innovation, Europe grappled with the repercussions of World War I. Cities were reconstructed, and tensions between nations like France and Germany simmered under the surface. The French economy, weakened by its dependence on American loans and reparations from Germany, struggled amidst the unstable post-war environment.

As France's economy faltered, the United States emerged as a dominant economic force, extending favorable loan terms to Germany. Meanwhile, Americans with modest means flocked to France, exploiting the favorable exchange rate for a taste of adventure and cultural enrichment.

New Leaders on the World Stage

Amidst these changes, new leaders rose to power, setting the stage for future global conflicts. In the Soviet Union, Josef Stalin began his authoritarian rule, prioritizing domestic control over global revolution. Italy witnessed Benito Mussolini's ascent, solidifying the Fascist Party's grip on power. In Asia, Chiang Kai-shek sought to unify China, while Emperor Hirohito ascended the throne in Japan, heralding a new era.

Economic Disparities and Social Change

Despite the wealth flaunted by the upper middle class, economic hardships persisted for many. Coal miners and public school teachers in America struggled to make ends meet, while labor movements were met with opposition. The period's social dynamics were complex, with the Great Migration seeing significant numbers of African Americans relocating from the segregated South to northern cities.

The 1921 musical “Ain’t We Got Fun” encapsulates the period saying, “The rich get richer, and the poor get children.”

In Britain, labor unrest reached a boiling point with a general strike led by coal miners, exacerbated by economic policies that favored cheap imports. This unrest underscored the growing tensions between labor forces and industrial interests in the post-war economy.

The Jazz Age: A Cultural Revolution

In Paris, the Jazz Age embodied a rebellion against conservative American values. Expatriates, disillusioned by political corruption, prohibition, and censorship back home, found freedom in Paris's vibrant, indulgent lifestyle. The city, filled with silent movie stars and intellectuals, offered a refuge for those seeking to escape societal constraints.

Women, in particular, embraced newfound liberties, challenging traditional roles with short skirts, bobbed hair, and a rejection of binding clothing. This era marked a significant shift in gender norms, with women openly participating in activities like drinking and smoking, previously considered taboo.

Literary Reflections and Social Critiques

Ernest Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises" famously portrayed the expatriate experience, capturing the era's decadence and moral ambiguity. Although high society initially sought to uncover the real-life inspirations behind Hemingway's characters, the novel's enduring impact lies in its critique of the superficiality and moral vacuity of the expatriate community.

Although promiscuity, apathy, and alcoholism figure prominently in the behavior of Brett and the other expatriates, most readers deemed their actions more chic than immoral.

The public's reaction to Hemingway's work highlighted the hypocrisy of societal standards, where glamour often masked deeper ethical failures. This literary exploration of the Jazz Age serves as a testament to the enduring influence of the Lost Generation, whose quest for meaning and authenticity continues to resonate in contemporary discourse.

The setting in The Sun Also Rises navigates through a world of post-war disillusionment and cultural upheaval, capturing the essence of the 1920s. The novel begins in Paris, a hub of artistic and existential exploration, before moving to the serene yet symbolic landscapes of the Spanish countryside. As the narrative unfolds, themes of identity, bravery, and existential struggle emerge, intertwined with the novel's distinctive backdrops.

Paris: A City Divided by Values

In Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises, Paris serves as the starting point, enveloping the characters in a vibrant cultural scene that mirrors their internal disarray. The city, divided by the River Seine into the work-oriented Right Bank and the idle Left Bank, reflects the clashing values of work and escapism. Jake Barnes, an American newspaperman, navigates this urban landscape amidst a community of American and British expatriates, all searching for meaning in a world reeling from the devastation of World War I.

Paris. French capital, in which the novel opens. There, American newspaperman Jake Barnes lives and works in the midst of a community of American and British expatriates who find the city a wasteland of values.

The Right Bank, characterized by its association with work and toughness, provides a contrast to the bohemian Left Bank, which is synonymous with idleness and emotional chaos. Within this dichotomy, Hemingway paints a picture of a city where both workers and idlers bear their own wounds—physical, emotional, or otherwise. Jake's encounters, from the newspaper office to the nightclubs, underscore the broader societal dislocation and the personal quests for identity and purpose.

From Paris to the Basque Countryside

As the narrative transitions from Paris to the Basque country of Spain, a sense of calm supplants the chaos of the city. Jake and his friend Bill Gorton embark on a journey that not only shifts the novel's setting but also marks a retreat from modern life's turmoil. The Spanish countryside, with its lush landscapes and serene villages, offers a temporary sanctuary where the characters reconnect with nature and rediscover simple joys, such as fishing.

*Pyrenees. Mountain range running along the border between France and Spain to which Jake takes his newly arrived American friend Bill Gorton on a five-day fishing trip. If Paris is hellish, the Spanish hamlets in which the men stay in the mountains are edenic.

This setting serves as a healing backdrop, contrasting sharply with Paris's "wasteland." While Jake battles insomnia in the city, he finds rest and reprieve in the quietude of the Pyrenees. The natural beauty of the Spanish countryside becomes a metaphor for the restoration of both mind and spirit.

Pamplona: A Clash of Tradition and Chaos

The tranquility of the countryside is short-lived as the characters arrive in Pamplona, a town electrified by the annual Fiesta de San Fermín. Here, the narrative reaches both its climax and its nadir amidst the frenzy of bullfights and the ritualistic "running of the bulls." The festival embodies the juxtaposition of vitality and danger, mirroring the characters' internal struggles and societal tensions.

*Pamplona. Town in northern Spain in which Jake’s vacation with his friends reaches both its high and its low points. The men stay in the town during its famous annual Fiesta de San Fermín, which lasts for a week in July.

In Pamplona, Hemingway explores themes of bravery, tradition, and existential struggle through the symbolism of the bullfight. Jake, a true aficionado, is drawn to the beauty and peril of the spectacle, while the festival's chaos tests the characters' relationships and convictions. As Brett becomes entangled with the bullfighter Pedro Romero, Jake's loyalty and values are put to the ultimate test, highlighting the novel's central drama.

Madrid: A Place for Reflection

Following the whirlwind of Pamplona, the journey culminates in Madrid, where Jake and Brett confront the aftermath of their experiences. The Spanish capital, vibrant yet introspective, provides a setting for reflection on personal transformations and the transient nature of their pursuits. In this final stage, Jake and Brett engage in a reckoning with their desires and choices, underscoring the novel's exploration of identity and connection in a post-war world.

In Madrid, Jake and Brett ponder the transformations they have undergone, questioning the nature of their desires and the impact of their choices.

Through its varied settings, Hemingway's narrative intricately weaves a tapestry of post-war disillusionment and existential inquiry. From Paris to the Pyrenees, Pamplona, and finally Madrid, each locale not only shapes the characters' journeys but also serves as a reflection of their internal landscapes, providing a profound commentary on the quest for meaning in an uncertain world.

Hemingway revolutionized early 20th-century literature by marrying traditional narrative forms with innovative stylistic techniques. His novel, The Sun Also Rises, is a testament to this fusion, characterized by a straightforward yet profound narrative style. Through the use of minimalist prose, deft dialogue, and symbolic landscapes, Hemingway explores themes of heroism, disillusionment, and the search for meaning amidst the chaos of the post-war world.

Innovative Narrative Techniques

Hemingway’s narrative approach combines conventional and avant-garde elements. The novel employs a first-person narrative, where the protagonist, Jake Barnes, recounts events in a manner likened to a “roman à clef.” Although the story takes inspiration from Hemingway's own experiences, it is more than mere autobiography; it's an exploration of broader truths relevant to the era's "lost generation." This narrative style allows for a personal yet universally accessible story, despite its autobiographical underpinnings.

A key feature of Hemingway's modernity is his reliance on dialogue. Unlike Henry James, who used dialogue sparingly, Hemingway crafts entire scenes through conversational exchanges, making the text accessible and engaging. As critic Conrad Aiken observed, Hemingway’s dialogue is vibrant and lifelike, driving the narrative forward and bringing characters to life. The dialogue creates a dynamic interaction that often reveals more than the narrative itself, establishing character relationships and tensions.

Symbolic Landscapes and Themes

Hemingway uses landscapes as a means to delve into the psychological states of his characters. These settings often reflect the internal struggles faced by the characters, such as Jake and Bill’s journey through the Basque country, where the tranquil landscape juxtaposes with looming mountains, symbolizing the dark realities shaping human existence. These environmental descriptions are minimalist yet powerful, painting vivid pictures that parallel the characters’ emotional landscapes.

Characterization and the Code-Hero

Central to Hemingway’s work is the concept of the "code-hero," embodied by characters like Jake Barnes and the bullfighter Romero. This archetype reflects a man who, though aware of life's inherent pathos and tragedy, adheres to a personal moral code. The code-hero does not equate heroism with traditional bravado in war or sport but rather with the ability to maintain personal integrity and honor in a chaotic world. This is exemplified by Romero, who, even after being beaten by Cohn, manages to uphold his dignity and perform with grace, a crucial element for the fiesta's success.

Jake, too, subscribes to this code, navigating life with a stoic acceptance of his circumstances. His relationship with Brett Ashley highlights this internal battle; despite their mutual affection, societal and personal barriers prevent them from being together. Brett’s decision to step back from Romero, despite her feelings, further underscores the code-hero’s ethos of living honorably within one’s self-imposed constraints.

The Unique Idiom of Hemingway

Hemingway's distinctive idiom is marked by terse, staccato sentences that are both economical and evocative. This minimalist style aims to convey authenticity and truth through carefully selected language that often implies more than it states. By leaving much unsaid, Hemingway compels readers to contemplate the underlying complexities. This approach is evident in the simplicity of sentences like, "Once in the night I woke and heard the wind blowing. It felt good to be warm and in bed," which starkly contrasts with longer, more elaborate descriptions typical of prior literary traditions.

The effectiveness of Hemingway’s style lies in its ability to create a world that, while emerging from the traumas of war, is reconstructed into one of beauty and simplicity. The precision and restraint of his language form a narrative that is both immediate and enduring, a reflection of Hemingway’s literary genius in capturing the essence of the human condition through minimalist prose.

• 1920s: Thomas Hunt Morgan confirms his hereditary transmission theory through fruit fly experiments and publishes The Theory of the Gene in 1926. At the same time, Herman Joseph Muller demonstrates that X-rays can induce genetic mutations.

  Today: It's now established that genes are the blueprint for life and can be altered by radiation. Morgan's pioneering experiment is a standard exercise in college biology labs. Furthermore, with advancements in genetic engineering, biotech companies are actively modifying the building blocks of nature through gene manipulation and cloning techniques.

• 1920s: Prohibition, dubbed the “Noble Experiment,” is in effect. Its supporters believe it will improve America by promoting sobriety. However, ordinary citizens defy the law by frequenting illegal bars operated by the Mafia. Bootlegging becomes a billion-dollar industry.

  Today: The “War on Drugs” aims to curb the sale of hard drugs and address urban decay in the United States.

• 1920s: The tuna industry faces a crisis as albacore vanish from the California coast, prompting the industry to switch to the lower-quality yellowfin tuna.

  Today: The entire fishing industry is in turmoil due to overfished oceans. Entire levels of the aquatic food chain have collapsed, leading to an explosion in the population of lower-level species like jellyfish due to the absence of predators. The situation is so dire that normally amicable nations such as Great Britain, Canada, Spain, and Portugal have almost come to conflict over fishing rights.

• 1920s: Bullfighting, a Spanish tradition, is limited to Spain and parts of Latin America and is exclusively a male activity.

  Today: Bullfighting's popularity continues to grow, with many Americans traveling to Pamplona for the bull run. The sport has seen the emergence of several female matadors, including a recent female champion.

• The Sun Also Rises (1957): Adapted by Twentieth Century-Fox for the big screen. Screenplay by Peter Viertel. Directed by Henry King. Starring Tyrone Power, Ava Gardner, and Errol Flynn. The adaptation is considered a disappointing motion picture that failed to capture the spirit of the novel.
• The Sun Also Rises (1985): Adapted as an NBC television miniseries. Directed by James Goldstone. The miniseries stars Jane Seymour, Hart Bochner, Zeljko Ivanek, Robert Carradine, and Elisabeth Borgnine. This adaptation is described as a disastrous attempt that did not comprehend the novel's themes.

• Aiken, Conrad. “Expatriates.” In New York Herald Tribune Books, October 31, 1926, p. 4.
• Aldridge, John W. “The Sun Also Rises—Sixty Years Later.” In The Sewanee Review, Vol. XCIV, No. 2, Spring 1986, pp. 337-45.
• Baker, Carlos. Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Scribner's, 1969. The first full-length biography of Hemingway, this volume remains the best and most reliable resource for a balanced portrait of the man and his career.
• Baker, Carlos. In Hemingway: The Writer as Artist, third edition. Princeton University Press, 1963, p. 379. Also published as Hemingway: The Writer as Artist, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972, which is one of the earliest and still one of the best critical studies of Hemingway's works.
• Baskett, Sam S. “‘An Image to Dance Around’: Brett and Her Lovers in ‘The Sun Also Rises.’” In The Centennial Review, Vol. XXII, No. 1, Winter 1978, pp. 45-69.
• Brooks, Cleanth, Jr., and Robert Penn Warren. “‘The Killers’, Ernest Hemingway: Interpretation.” In Understanding Fiction, edited by Cleanth Brooks, Jr. and Robert Penn Warren. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959, pp. 306-25.
• Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986. A useful and convenient compilation of Hemingway interviews and statements.
• Daiker, Donald A. “The Affirmative Conclusion of The Sun Also Rises.” In Modern American Fiction: Form and Function, edited by Thomas Daniel Young. Louisiana State University Press, 1989, pp. 39-56. Daiker asserts that a close reading of Book III reveals that The Sun Also Rises is an affirmative book.
• Donaldson, Scott. “Humor in The Sun Also Rises.” In New Essays on The Sun Also Rises, edited by Linda Wagner-Martin. Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 19-41. Revealing that Hemingway started his writing career trying to be funny, Donaldson discusses the author’s use of humor in The Sun Also Rises.
• Doody, Terrence. “Hemingway’s Style and Jake’s Narration.” In The Journal of Narrative Technique, Vol. 4, No. 3, September 1974, pp. 212-25.
• Farrell, James T. “Ernest Hemingway, Apostle of a ‘Lost Generation.’” In The New York Times Books Review, August 1, 1943, pp. 6, 14.
• Flemming, Robert E. “The Importance of Count Mippipopolous: Creating the Code Hero.” In Arizona Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 2, Summer 1988, pp. 69-75. Flemming contends that the Count may be an early prototype in Hemingway’s fiction of the character type known as the “code hero.”
• Gross, Barry. “Dealing with Robert Cohn.” In Hemingway in Italy and Other Essays, edited by Robert W. Lewis. Praeger, 1990, pp. 123-30. Gross discusses the depiction of Robert Cohn and the issue of anti-Semitism in The Sun Also Rises.
• Hemingway, Ernest. The Sun Also Rises. New York: Scribner’s Paperback Fiction, 1954.
• Hemingway, Ernest. Death in the Afternoon. Touchstone Books, 1996. Contains Hemingway’s own discussion of his favorite sport—bullfighting. The book explains the ritual and provides pictures.
• Hook, Andrew. “Art and Life in The Sun Also Rises.” In Ernest Hemingway: New Critical Essays, edited by A. Robert Lee. Vision Press, 1983, pp. 49-63.
• Josephs, Allen. “Toreo: The Moral Axis of The Sun Also Rises.” In Critical Essays on Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, edited by James Nagel. G.K. Hall & Co., 1995, pp. 126-40. Josephs explores how and why the art of toreo lies at the heart of The Sun Also Rises.
• Kumar, Sukrita Paul. “Woman as Hero in Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises.” In The Literary Endeavour, Vol. VI, Nos. 1-4, 1985, pp. 102-08.
• Kwan, Albert. “The Sun Also Rises and On the Road.” Available online at http://www.atlantic.net/~gagne/pol/ontheroad.html, 1998. World War II created a group of artists with similar disillusions to those of the Lost Generation. This group came to be known as the Beat Generation and in Albert Kwan’s essay, Ernest Hemingway and Jack Kerouac are compared.
• Lynn, David H. “The Sun Also Rises: Heroism of Innocence, Heroism of a Fallen World.” In The Hero’s Tale. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989, pp. 92–117.
• Lynn, Kenneth S. Hemingway. Fawcett Books, 1988. In an attempt to be objective about Hemingway, Kenneth Lynn is seen by some fans as a bit harsh in this biographical account. It is an unusually balanced work for a Hemingway biography and it is not afraid to reveal some of the darker things about the famous writer.
• Mizener, Arthur. The Sense of Life in the Modern Novel. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964.
• Moore, Gene M. "Ernest Hemingway." In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. Contains a useful overview of Hemingway criticism and biography.
• Morris, Lawrence S. “Warfare in Man and among Men.” In The New Republic, Vol. XLIX, No. 629, December 22, 1926, pp. 142-43.
• Nagel, James. “Brett and the Other Women inThe Sun Also Rises.” In The Cambridge Companion to Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 87-108. In this discussion of the women in The Sun Also Rises, Nagel argues that, in order to come to terms with his emotional devastation, Jake tells his story—a cathartic reiteration that focuses on Brett and the women who surround her.
• Nichols, Kathleen. “The Morality of Asceticism in The Sun Also Rises: A Structural Reinterpretation.” In Fitzgerald/Hemingway Annual, edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli and Richard Layman, 1978, pp. 321-30. Nichols contends that the solution Jake finds to his problems might be called a secularized morality based on the Catholic ideal of asceticism.
• Oliver, Charles M., ed. The Hemingway Review. Most of the important new scholarly and critical work on Hemingway appears in this journal.
• O’Sullivan, Sibbie. “Love and Friendship/Man and Woman in The Sun Also Rises.” In Arizona Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 2, Summer 1988, pp. 76-97. O’Sullivan proposes that the novel may be read as a story about the cautious belief in the survival of the two most basic components of any human relationship: love and friendship.
• Reynolds, Michael. The Young Hemingway. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986. The first volume in a multivolume biography of Hemingway, this judicious work is the most significant and substantive of the many biographies that have appeared since Baker's landmark study.
• Reynolds, Michael S. The Sun Also Rises, a Novel of the Twenties. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1988, pp. ix–4. A book-length study of the themes, characters, and symbolism of the novel.
• Reynolds, Michael S. “The Sun in Its Time: Recovering the Historical Context.” In New Essays on The Sun Also Rises, edited by Linda Wagner-Martin. Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 43-64. Arguing that The Sun Also Rises is “anchored in time," Reynolds places the novel in its historical context.
• Rovit, Earl H. “Ernest Hemingway: The Sun Also Rises.” In Landmarks of American Writing, edited by Hennig Cohen. Basic Books, Inc., 1969, pp. 303-14.
• Schwartz, Nina. “Lovers’ Discourse in The Sun Also Rises: A Cock and Bull Story.” In Criticism, Vol. XXVI, No. 1, Winter 1984, pp. 49-69.
• Spilka, Mark. “The Death of Love in The Sun Also Rises.” In Twelve Original Essays on Great American Novels, edited by Charles Shapiro. Wayne State University Press, 1958, pp. 238-56.
• Tate, Allen. “Hard Boiled.” In The Nation, Vol. CXXIII, No. 3206, December 15, 1926, pp. 642, 644.
• Wagner, Linda W., ed. Ernest Hemingway: Six Decades of Criticism. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1987. Contains some of the best critical essays on Hemingway's work.
• Wagner-Martin, Linda. “Introduction.” In New Essays on The Sun Also Rises, edited by Linda Wagner-Martin. Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 1-18. Wagner-Martin discusses various biographical, historical and textual issues in this introduction to a volume of essays on The Sun Also Rises.
• Waldhorn, Arthur. A Reader's Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972. A useful guide to Hemingway's work.
• Williams, Wirt. The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. An interesting critical study of the tragic elements in Hemingway's work.
• Wilson, Jane E. “Good Old Harris in The Sun Also Rises.” In Critical Essays on Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, edited by James Nagel. G. K. Hall & Co., 1995, pp. 185-90. Wilson discusses the fishing trip to Burguete and argues that Jake’s relationship with Harris is the key to understanding the meaning of the episode.
• “Marital Tragedy.” In The New York Times Book Review, October 31, 1926, p. 7.