*Paris

*Paris. French capital, in which the novel opens. There, American newspaperman Jake Barnes lives and works in the midst of a community of American and British expatriates who find the city a wasteland of values. A question regarding values that arises early in the book is the contrast between work and idleness, and this opposition is reflected in the Parisian locales frequented by Jake and his friends.

Paris is split by the River Seine into two sections: the Right Bank (Rive Droite) and the Left Bank (Rive Gauche). In the novel, work is associated with the Right Bank. Jake’s newspaper office, for example, is on the Right Bank, in the vicinity of the avenue de l’Opéra and the Tuileries garden. On the Right Bank, too, he encounters Georgette, who as a prostitute is a working woman.

When Jake, with Georgette in tow, goes partying with his idle and rich expatriate friends, they go to the Left Bank, near the Panthéon. There they encounter Jake’s love, Lady Brett, with an entourage of gay men. The similarity between Georgette and Brett is emphasized by their rhyming names and their promiscuity; the difference between them is that one engages in sex professionally, and the other is an alcoholic amateur in promiscuity.

It is evident that Ernest Hemingway endorses the values of work and the Right Bank, rather than the bohemian idleness of the Left Bank, for those who work are realistic and tough-minded, while those who remain idle are escapist and emotionally untidy. However, both workers and idlers, realists and escapists, all of them are physically or emotionally wounded: Jake is impotent, Brett is an adulterer, Cohn has a broken nose, Georgette has rotten teeth. Hence, both the Right Bank and the Left Bank are like Paris as a whole, wastelands of lost values and denatured love.

*Pyrenees

*Pyrenees (pihr-ah-neez). Mountain range running along the border between France and Spain to which Jake takes his newly arrived American friend Bill Gorton on a five-day fishing trip. If Paris is hellish, the Spanish hamlets in which the men stay in the mountains are edenic. Hemingway depicts landscapes of breathtaking natural beauty in which nature and humanity coexist in a blessed ecological union, as when “fields of grapes touched the houses.” It is an idyllic and healing experience, contrasting with that of Paris. Whereas Jake suffers from insomnia and cries in the night in Paris; in the Pyrenees, he sleeps soundly and dreamlessly.

*Roncesvalles

*Roncesvalles (rahn-sihs-VAH-yay; also known as Roncevaux). Spanish town in the Pyrenees whose medieval monastery Jake and Bill visit, along with the Englishman Wilson Harris whom they meet while fishing. The trip becomes almost a pilgrimage. For Roncesvalles is a relic of an epoch when friendship, valor, and combat had meaning. Indeed, it is the site of the French national epic, The Song of Roland (twelfth century), an epic that celebrates the true friendship of Roland and Oliver and the prowess of their small band of courageous companions who died fighting against a Moorish invasion, thereby buying time for Charlemagne to redeploy the forces that saved Europe for Christianity. At Roncevaux, even in modern times, Hemingway shows that friendship can have real worth and meaning. As the men part company, Harris gives Jake and Bill some fishing flies that he himself has tied—symbols of friendship valuable beyond anything that can be bought or sold.

*Pamplona

*Pamplona (pam-PLOH-nah). Town in northern Spain in which Jake’s vacation with his friends reaches both its high and its low points. The men stay in the town during its famous annual Fiesta de San Fermín, which lasts for a week in July. During this nominally religious fiesta, there are daily bullfights preceded by the running of the bulls through the city streets, followed by spontaneous eruptions of inebriated parties.

Hemingway uses Pamplona’s fiesta to highlight contrasts between meaningful and empty values. The bullfighter Pedro Romero represents the best values because, through work and artistry, he creates beauty out of violence, while risking his life in its creation. True fans of bullfighting, including Jake, know and understand this almost as if it were an article of religious faith.

The empty values are emblematized by Brett, who becomes a paganistic Circe-like figure attracting throngs of idle, pleasure-seeking party-goers. When Pedro (the worker-artist) and Brett (the partying idler) fall in love, Jake finds himself in a dilemma; he loves them both, yet knows that Brett’s lifestyle will endanger Pedro’s talent. However, through loyalty to his (impotent) love for Brett, Jake brings them together, only to be reviled by bullfight aficionados as a pimping traitor, and he is beaten up by Robert Cohn. Thus is the central drama of the novel played out in Pamplona.

*San Sebastian

*San Sebastian. Spanish seaside resort town in which Jake recuperates after the debacle in Pamplona, There, he goes for a long swim that is renewing and almost baptismal in effect, making him feel as though he “could never sink.” Afterward, he heeds Brett’s request to meet her in Madrid after she breaks off from Pedro.

The Lost Generation
Disenchanted with the dominance of business and the futility of Prohibition, many writers relocated to Paris, where the favorable exchange rate allowed them to work for newspapers or magazines. However, these writers often spent most of their time in cafes, reflecting on the aftermath of a war for which they felt no accountability. Disillusioned, they debated their inherited nineteenth-century values and the provincial and emotional emptiness of America. They found solace in an older generation. Hemingway, with letters of introduction from Sherwood Anderson, joined this group that frequented Gertrude Stein’s Salon, Sylvia Beach’s Shakespeare and Company bookstore, James Joyce’s apartment, the transatlantic review offices of Ford Madox Ford, or Samuel Putnam’s office. The older writers nurtured the members of what Stein, after overhearing her mechanic, called “the lost generation.” Among the elders, Stein, who bridged the past and present, and Ezra Pound, who Hemingway tried to teach boxing in exchange for literary guidance, were the most significant influences on Hemingway.

“The Lost Generation” managed to sift through the wreckage of civilization and create new art. From the negation of war emerged a means to cope with disillusionment. T. S. Eliot wove ancient myths into his profoundly influential poem, “The Waste Land.” e. e. cummings pioneered new forms of poetry. Members of this generation, including F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos, Hart Crane, and Glenway Westcott, played a significant role in revitalizing the arts. The most crucial contribution of “The Lost Generation” was demonstrating the resilience of culture and setting it in motion again with the hopeful idealism that characterized American literature in the 1930s.

The Roaring Twenties
By the mid-1920s, Europe was beginning to recover from the devastation of World War I, and cities were being rebuilt. Although tensions between France and Germany over border issues persisted, they were relatively subdued as France became increasingly isolated. The French war effort had relied on American loans, and repaying these loans depended on reparations from Germany. These reparations were difficult to collect because Britain and the United States were reluctant to enforce them. Nonetheless, Germany, potentially the most powerful nation in Europe, was quietly receiving favorable loan terms from the United States. The French economy deteriorated further when the franc was stabilized at 20% of its pre-war value. This situation made France a gold collector and attracted adventure-seeking Americans, who took advantage of the favorable exchange rates with their moderate sums of dollars.

New Leaders
Although World War II was still far off, the leaders who would significantly influence the conflict were rising to power. Josef Stalin began his 27-year dictatorship in the Soviet Union, shifting focus from global revolution to oppressing and terrorizing Soviet citizens and neighboring countries. During this period, the Politburo expelled Leon Trotsky and Grigori Zinoviev. In Italy, Benito Mussolini took control, establishing the Fascist party as the unchallenged state party. In China, Chiang Kai-shek succeeded Sun Yat-Sen and started the process of unifying the country. In Japan, Emperor Yoshihito passed away, and his son Hirohito ascended to the throne, a position he held until his death in 1989.

Economics
For the wealthy and upper-middle class, the 1920s were a time of prosperity, indulgence, and bootlegging. However, for the majority, life remained a struggle. The 1921 musical “Ain’t We Got Fun” perfectly captured the era with the line, “The rich get richer, and the poor get children.” In America, coal miners earned a sparse 75 cents per hour (about $7.50 in 1995 dollars) to support their families, while public-school teachers earned around $1000 annually. Labor movements faced severe repression, and there were minimal improvements. One notable change was the Ford Motor Company's introduction of an 8-hour workday and a 5-day workweek. The situation was particularly dire for African Americans, with 85% living in the segregated South and 23% being illiterate. Many began migrating to northern cities, creating lasting demographic changes.

In Britain, labor relations were akin to class warfare. A general strike paralyzed the country as coal miners, represented by the Trade Union Congress, demanded, “Not a penny off the pay; not a minute on the day.” Numerous workers from various sectors, including railwaymen, printers, dockworkers, and construction workers, joined the strike in solidarity. The root cause was Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill's decision to return to the gold standard, which lowered import prices and forced mine operators to reduce wages to compete with German and Polish imports. Economist John Maynard Keynes criticized Churchill’s decision as “silly.” The situation nearly escalated to violence when the Royal Navy aimed its guns at strikers who tried to block the unloading of ships at the docks.

The novel begins in Paris in the early 1920s. During the decade following World War I, the Left Bank of the Seine River became a hub for philosophers, artists, and writers. This period and location inspired some of the most significant artistic works of the modern era. Hemingway himself resided in Paris as a young man and interacted with literary figures such as F. Scott Fitzgerald and Gertrude Stein.

Although The Sun Also Rises starts in Paris and reflects the American and British community's sensibilities there, its setting spans the European countryside. Jake and his friend Bill Gorton depart from Paris by train to fish in Spain's Basque country, eventually meeting up with the rest of their group. In Pamplona, the festival's symbolic focus is the bullfight, where ordinary people risk their lives each morning to "run with the bulls" through the city's streets. Jake and his friends are all expatriates and wanderers, unable to call any single place home. Even Jake, who sees himself as a true "aficionado"—someone who deeply understands and is passionate about the bullfight—finds his beliefs challenged by the week's events. By the time he leaves Pamplona, he is a transformed man. The novel concludes in Madrid, where Jake and Brett reflect on the changes they experienced during the festival.

Narrative
Jake Barnes narrates the story in the first person, which some call a “roman à clef.” This term describes a tale that only those with a “key” can fully understand, as it reveals the true identities and places behind the narrative. Jake Barnes’ story mirrors the real events of Hemingway’s summer of 1925 with his friends. However, the differences are significant enough that no “key” is required to comprehend the story. In other words, the novel is self-sufficient, regardless of whether the reader knows who inspired the character Lady Brett Ashley. Additionally, Jake Barnes is not a direct representation of Hemingway, who was married during his trip to Pamplona. Jake is a composite of several real people and embodies Hemingway’s theoretical code-hero. While there are similarities for comparison, the novel is not an autobiographical account. It aims to convey truths relevant to the current generation.

Dialogue
Hemingway’s extensive use of dialogue is a hallmark of his modern style. Unlike Henry James, who believed dialogue should be the climax of a scene and used sparingly, Hemingway constructs entire scenes from dialogue alone. This technique makes the story quick and easy to read, akin to news writing. The author seems to fade into the background as the interactions between characters drive the narrative, creating a group conversation rather than a straightforward narration. Many critics appreciated Hemingway’s skill in this area. Conrad Aiken noted, “More than any other talk I can call to mind, it is alive with the rhythms and idioms, the pauses and suspensions and innuendoes and shorthands, of living speech. It is in the dialogue, almost entirely, that Mr. Hemingway tells his story and makes the people live and act.” The use of dialogue is a defining feature of Hemingway’s writing style.

Hero
Hemingway’s response to the disillusionment, or ennui, of his “lost generation” was to encourage each person to pursue their own path to heroism. However, as the novel illustrates, his concept of heroism did not involve bravery in war or sports but the creation of a personal moral code. One must “never be daunted.”

Jake Barnes and his companions exemplify Hemingway’s theories in the most compelling way. Later Hemingway protagonists possess the humanity that evokes our empathy and admiration. Robert Penn Warren and Cleanth Brooks eloquently defined this code-hero while discussing Hemingway’s “The Killers.” They described the code-hero as “the tough man . . . the disciplined man, who actually is aware of pathos or tragedy.” Lacking spontaneous emotion, the code-hero “sheathes [his sensibility] in the code of toughness” because “he has learned that the only way to hold on to 'honor,' to individuality, to, even, the human order . . . is to live by his code.” Romero embodies this ideal not just through his bullfighting skills, but by ignoring the bruises Cohn gives him to perform at his best. The success of the fiesta hinges on his ability to do so. Brett and Jake also fit this definition. Brett decides she cannot spoil the young bullfighter but will continue to live stylishly while concealing her unfulfilled love. Jake resolves to live by his own code with the aid of his stoicism.

Idiom
Hemingway’s unique style is marked by heavy dialogue, terse, staccato sentences, and minimalist descriptions and emotional expressions. This style, or idiom, uses carefully chosen language to convey fictional authenticity, ensuring it never feels false. The aim is to construct a world with certainty while leaving the ambiguous unsaid. Consequently, the language often suggests ideas beyond the written words. However, only the written words are to be trusted as true. This new style aims to rebuild a civilization of beauty and simplicity from the destruction of war, much like the Biblical genesis.

The starkness of this intent is most evident in the fishing expedition, “Once in the night I woke and heard the wind blowing. It felt good to be warm and in bed.” Where previous writers might have used chapters, Hemingway conveys the scene in just two sentences. This simplicity starkly contrasts with the sleepless nights in Paris and evokes the desolation of the “Waste Land.”

When examined within the context of early 1920s literature, Hemingway's work in The Sun Also Rises showcases a blend of traditional and innovative techniques. The novel's chronological, first-person narrative structure is fairly conventional, but its intense, almost poetic style sets it apart. Hemingway strips away embellishments—such as excessive adjectives or adverbs—and carefully selects words to seamlessly merge action, emotion, and text.

Hemingway skillfully adjusts the rhythm of his prose, often using repetition and short sentences. When Brett arrives at Jake's doorstep at 4:30 a.m., she explains why she left her companion:

...Then he wanted me to go to Cannes with him. Told him I knew too many people in Cannes. Monte Carlo. Told him I knew too many people in Monte Carlo. Told him I knew too many people everywhere. Quite true, too. So I asked him to bring me here.

The dialogue in The Sun Also Rises, as in all of Hemingway's works, reveals character, advances the plot, and creates tension. Brett's breathless recounting of her evening highlights her casual, world-weary, and often intoxicated perspective; while Cannes and Monte Carlo typically evoke images of glamour and romance, Brett's offhand remarks about these places underscore the unspoken truth that she and Jake can never be lovers. Throughout the novel, Hemingway's distinctive dialogue greatly enhances the book's impact.

Hemingway employs the symbolic landscape to uncover the psychological and emotional states of his characters. Landscapes are rich with history and reflect the inner lives of those who traverse them. As Jake and Bill drive through the Basque country, Jake notes "squares of green and brown on the hillsides. Making the horizon were the brown mountains. They were strangely shaped." For Jake and his companions, travel is neither a novelty nor a form of escape; the serene countryside encircled by ominous mountains symbolizes the harsh realities that shape human experience.

From its inception, The Sun Also Rises has sparked controversy. Upon its initial publication, high society endeavored to link characters in the novel with certain well-known figures from the expatriate community. The excitement of this guessing game soon waned, allowing Hemingway's characters to be analyzed on their own merits. Despite the prominent roles that promiscuity, apathy, and alcoholism play in the behavior of Brett and the other expatriates, most readers regarded their actions as more fashionable than immoral. Consequently, while The Sun Also Rises openly criticizes expatriate society for its lack of moral foundation, the public's reaction over the years has highlighted the broader societal hypocrisy in refraining from harshly judging those it deems sufficiently glamorous.

• 1920s: Thomas Hunt Morgan confirms his hereditary transmission theory through fruit fly experiments and publishes The Theory of the Gene in 1926. At the same time, Herman Joseph Muller demonstrates that X-rays can induce genetic mutations.

  Today: It's now established that genes are the blueprint for life and can be altered by radiation. Morgan's pioneering experiment is a standard exercise in college biology labs. Furthermore, with advancements in genetic engineering, biotech companies are actively modifying the building blocks of nature through gene manipulation and cloning techniques.

• 1920s: Prohibition, dubbed the “Noble Experiment,” is in effect. Its supporters believe it will improve America by promoting sobriety. However, ordinary citizens defy the law by frequenting illegal bars operated by the Mafia. Bootlegging becomes a billion-dollar industry.

  Today: The “War on Drugs” aims to curb the sale of hard drugs and address urban decay in the United States.

• 1920s: The tuna industry faces a crisis as albacore vanish from the California coast, prompting the industry to switch to the lower-quality yellowfin tuna.

  Today: The entire fishing industry is in turmoil due to overfished oceans. Entire levels of the aquatic food chain have collapsed, leading to an explosion in the population of lower-level species like jellyfish due to the absence of predators. The situation is so dire that normally amicable nations such as Great Britain, Canada, Spain, and Portugal have almost come to conflict over fishing rights.

• 1920s: Bullfighting, a Spanish tradition, is limited to Spain and parts of Latin America and is exclusively a male activity.

  Today: Bullfighting's popularity continues to grow, with many Americans traveling to Pamplona for the bull run. The sport has seen the emergence of several female matadors, including a recent female champion.

While all of Hemingway's works are interconnected, those keen to delve deeper into his affection for Spain should explore his classic nonfiction study on bullfighting, Death in the Afternoon.

The Sun Also Rises is often analyzed alongside Hemingway's other novels, A Farewell to Arms and For Whom the Bell Tolls, as well as his novella, The Old Man and the Sea. In these subsequent works, Hemingway's characters confront death or severe hardship and discover the importance of "grace under pressure." When read collectively, these books span almost four decades, offering insights into how Hemingway maintained and evolved his core themes throughout his career.

Numerous attempts have been made to adapt Hemingway's writings into films. The Sun Also Rises was turned into a disappointing movie in 1957, directed by Henry King and featuring Tyrone Power, Ava Gardner, and Errol Flynn. In 1985, it was adapted again as an unsuccessful NBC television miniseries starring Jane Seymour, Hart Bochner, Zeljko Ivanek, and Robert Carradine. Both adaptations failed to capture the essence of the novel or understand its themes.

• Twentieth Century-Fox brought The Sun Also Rises to the silver screen using a screenplay by Peter Viertel. Released in 1957, the film was directed by Harry King and featured performances by Tyrone Power, Ava Gardner, and Errol Flynn.
• In 1985, James Goldstone directed a television adaptation of The Sun Also Rises, starring Elisabeth Borgnine.

Baker, Carlos. Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Scribner's, 1969. As the first comprehensive biography of Hemingway, this book remains the most dependable resource for a balanced view of the man and his career.

Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972. One of the earliest and still one of the finest critical analyses of Hemingway's literary works.

Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986. A practical and accessible collection of interviews and statements from Hemingway.

Moore, Gene M. "Ernest Hemingway." In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. Offers a valuable summary of Hemingway criticism and biographical material.

Oliver, Charles M., ed. The Hemingway Review. This journal publishes much of the significant new scholarly and critical work on Hemingway.

Reynolds, Michael. The Young Hemingway. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986. The initial volume in a multi-part biography of Hemingway, this thoughtful work is the most important and comprehensive biography since Baker's seminal study.

Wagner, Linda W., ed. Ernest Hemingway: Six Decades of Criticism. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1987. Includes some of the finest critical essays on Hemingway's writing.

Waldhorn, Arthur. A Reader's Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972. A helpful guide to Hemingway's literary works.

Williams, Wirt. The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. An intriguing critical examination of the tragic aspects in Hemingway's literature.

Sources
Quotations from The Sun Also Rises are taken from the following edition:
Hemingway, Ernest. The Sun Also Rises. New York: Scribner’s Paperback Fiction, 1954

Aiken, Conrad. “Expatriates.” In New York Herald Tribune Books, October 31, 1926, p. 4.

Aldridge, John W. “The Sun Also Rises—Sixty Years Later.” In The Sewanee Review, Vol XCIV, No. 2, Spring, 1986, pp. 337-45.

Baker, Carlos. In Hemingway: The Writer as Artist, third edition. Princeton University Press, 1963, p. 379.

Baskett, Sam S. “‘An Image to Dance Around’: Brett and Her Lovers in ‘The Sun Also Rises.’” In The Centennial Review, Vol. XXII, No. 1, Winter, 1978, pp. 45-69.

Brooks, Cleanth, Jr., and Robert Penn Warren. “‘The Killers’, Ernest Hemingway: Interpretation.” In Understanding Fiction, edited by Cleanth Brooks, Jr. and Robert Penn Warren. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959, pp. 306-25.

Doody, Terrence. “Hemingway’s Style and Jake’s Narration." In The Journal of Narrative Technique, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1974, pp. 212-25.

Farrell, James T. “Ernest Hemingway, Apostle of a ‘Lost Generation.’” In The New York Times Books Review, August 1, 1943, pp. 6, 14.

Hook, Andrew. “Art and Life in The Sun Also Rises.” In Ernest Hemingway: New Critical Essays, edited by A. Robert Lee. Vision Press, 1983, pp. 49-63.

Kumar, Sukrita Paul. “Woman as Hero in Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises.” In The Literary Endeavour, Vol. VI, Nos. 1-4, 1985, pp. 102-08.

Lynn, David H. “The Sun Also Rises: Heroism of Innocence, Heroism of a Fallen World.” In The Hero’s Tale. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989, pp. 92–117.

Mizener, Arthur. The Sense of Life in the Modern Novel. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964.

“Marital Tragedy.” In The New York Times Book Review, October 31, 1926, p. 7.

Morris, Lawrence S. “Warfare in Man and among Men.” In The New Republic, Vol. XLIX, No. 629, December 22, 1926, pp. 142-43.

O’Sullivan, Sibbie. “Love and Friendship/Man and Woman in The Sun Also Rises.” In Arizona Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 2, Summer, 1988, pp. 76-97.

Reynolds, Michael S. The Sun Also Rises, a Novel of the Twenties. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1988. pp. ix–4.

Rovit, Earl H. “Ernest Hemingway: The Sun Also Rises.” In Landmarks of American Writing, edited by Hennig Cohen. Basic Books, Inc., 1969, pp. 303-14.

Schwartz, Nina. “Lovers’ Discourse in The Sun Also Rises: A Cock and Bull Story.” In Criticism, Vol. XXVI, No. 1, Winter, 1984, pp. 49-69.

Spilka, Mark. “The Death of Love in The Sun Also Rises.” In Twelve Original Essays on Great American Novels, edited by Charles Shapiro. Wayne State University Press, 1958, pp. 238-56.

Tate, Allen. “Hard Boiled.” In The Nation, Vol. CXXIII, No. 3206, December 15, 1926, pp. 642, 644.

Young, Philip. Ernest Hemingway. Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1952, p. 244.

For Further Study
Daiker, Donald A. “The Affirmative Conclusion of The Sun Also Rises.” In Modern American Fiction: Form and Function, edited by Thomas Daniel Young. Louisiana State University Press, 1989, pp. 39-56. Daiker argues that a thorough reading of Book III shows that The Sun Also Rises is an affirmative work.

Donaldson, Scott. “Humor in The Sun Also Rises.” In New Essays on The Sun Also Rises, edited by Linda Wagner-Martin, Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 19-41. Donaldson reveals that Hemingway initially aimed to be humorous in his writing career and explores the use of humor in The Sun Also Rises.

Gross, Barry. “Dealing with Robert Cohn.” In Hemingway in Italy and Other Essays, edited by Robert W. Lewis, Praeger, 1990, pp. 123-30. Gross examines the portrayal of Robert Cohn and addresses the issue of anti-Semitism in The Sun Also Rises.

Flemming, Robert E. “The Importance of Count Mippipopolous: Creating the Code Hero.” In Arizona Quarterly, Vol. 44., No. 2, Summer 1988, pp. 69-75. Flemming argues that Count Mippipopolous might be an early example of the "code hero" in Hemingway’s fiction.

Hemingway, Ernest. Death in the Afternoon. Touchstone Books, 1996. This book includes Hemingway’s own discussion of his favorite sport—bullfighting, explaining the ritual and providing illustrations.

Josephs, Allen. “Toreo: The Moral Axis of The Sun Also Rises.” In Critical Essays on Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, edited by James Nagel, G.K. Hall & Co., 1995, pp. 126-40. Josephs delves into how and why the art of toreo is central to The Sun Also Rises.

Kwan, Albert. “The Sun Also Rises and On the Road.” At http://www.atlantic.net/~gagne/pol/ontheroad.html, 1998. Kwan's essay compares Ernest Hemingway and Jack Kerouac, noting that World War II produced a group of artists with disillusions similar to those of the Lost Generation, known as the Beat Generation.

Lynn, Kenneth S. Hemingway. Fawcett Books, 1988. Kenneth Lynn attempts to provide an objective biography of Hemingway, which some fans find harsh. This balanced work reveals some of the darker aspects of Hemingway's life.

Nagel, James. “Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises.” In The Cambridge Companion to Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 87-108. Nagel discusses the women in The Sun Also Rises, arguing that Jake tells his story as a cathartic process to cope with his emotional devastation, focusing on Brett and the women around her.

Nichols, Kathleen. “The Morality of Asceticism in The Sun Also Rises: A Structural Reinterpretation.” In Fitzgerald/Hemingway Annual, edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli and Richard Layman, 1978, pp. 321-30. Nichols asserts that Jake's solution to his problems can be seen as a secularized morality inspired by the Catholic ideal of asceticism.

O’Sullivan, Sibbie. “Love and Friendship/Man and Woman in The Sun Also Rises.” In Arizona Quarterly, Vol. 44, 1988, pp. 76-97. O’Sullivan suggests that the novel can be interpreted as a story about the cautious belief in the endurance of the fundamental components of human relationships: love and friendship.

Reynolds, Michael S. “The Sun in Its Time: Recovering the Historical Context.” In New Essays on The Sun Also Rises, edited by Linda Wagner-Martin. Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 43-64.
Reynolds asserts that The Sun Also Rises is “anchored in time," situating the novel within its historical framework.

———. The Sun Also Rises: A Novel of the Twenties. Twayne Publishers, 1988. This comprehensive study explores the themes, characters, and symbolism found in the novel.

Wagner-Martin, Linda. “Introduction.” In New Essays on The Sun Also Rises, edited by Linda Wagner-Martin. Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 1-18. In this introduction to a collection of essays on The Sun Also Rises, Wagner-Martin addresses various biographical, historical, and textual issues.

Wilson, Jane E. “Good Old Harris in The Sun Also Rises.” In Critical Essays on Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, edited by James Nagel. G. K. Hall & Co., 1995, pp. 185-90.
Wilson examines the fishing trip to Burguete, arguing that Jake’s relationship with Harris is crucial to understanding the significance of this episode.