emerged in Ireland around 375 A.D. The Celts adapted Christianity to align with their social traditions, showcasing their creativity in church organization, literature, and art. This civilization was ultimately destroyed due to invasions by Vikings from the ninth to eleventh centuries, the ecclesiastical authority of Rome, and the political dominance of England in the twelfth century.

Hellenic

Hellenic civilization was loosely connected to the Minoan civilization and gave rise to Western and Orthodox Christian civilizations. It first appeared along the coasts and islands of the Aegean before 1100 B.C., facing challenges from barren lands, the sea, and a deteriorating Minoan society. Its period of turmoil began in 431 B.C. with the Peloponnesian War, which concluded with Sparta's victory in 404 B.C. This instability persisted until 32 B.C. when the Roman Empire was established, ushering in a period of peace lasting until 378 A.D. The Hellenic civilization fell with the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth century A.D. It achieved notable accomplishments in politics, art, literature, architecture, science, and philosophy, with figures such as Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, Socrates, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Zeno.

Hindu

Hindu civilization emerged in North India before 800 A.D. from the declining Indic civilization. Its turbulent era lasted from 1175 to 1572 A.D., followed by the establishment of the Mughal Empire from 1572 to 1707. After the Mughal Empire collapsed, it was succeeded by the British Raj from 1818 to 1947. Hindu civilization developed the religions of Sikhism and Hinduism, with the latter associated with Sankara, who lived around 800 A.D. Hindu civilization remains vibrant today.

Hittite

Hittite civilization emerged in Cappadocia, just beyond the borders of the Sumeric civilization, before 1500 B.C. Its primary challenge was addressing the decline of the Sumeric civilization. The Hittites were frequently at war with Egypt from 1352 to 1278 B.C. This civilization was ultimately overwhelmed by a migratory wave from 1200 to 1190 B.C.

Indic

The Indic civilization originated around 1500 B.C. in the Indus and Ganges river valleys and eventually expanded to encompass the entire Indian subcontinent. The primary environmental challenge it faced was the dense tropical forests of the Ganges valley. Until 322 B.C., the civilization experienced a period known as the Time of Troubles. This was followed by the establishment of the Mauryan Empire, a universal state, which lasted from 322 to 185 B.C. Subsequently, the Guptan Empire emerged around 375–475 A.D., succeeded by approximately 300 years of invasions by the Huns and Gurjaras. The Indic civilization gave rise to the Vedic religion, Buddhism (567–487 B.C.), and Jainism.

Iranic

The Iranic civilization was closely linked with the Syriac civilization. It developed in regions including Iran, Iraq, Syria, and North Africa before 1300 A.D. as the Syriac civilization began to decline. The Islamic Church served as the catalyst for its emergence. Its counterpart was the Arabic civilization, with which it merged in 1516 to create the Islamic civilization. In contemporary times, the Pan-Islamic movement has hinted at the possibility of forming a universal state, although this has yet to materialize.

Mayan

The Mayan civilization developed in the tropical forests of Central America before approximately 500 B.C. The civilization's challenge was to manage the abundant forest growth. It went through a Time of Troubles until 300 A.D., after which the First Empire of the Mayas was established. Despite lacking advanced technology, the Mayans achieved a sophisticated level of civilization, particularly excelling in the field of astronomy. The Mayan civilization mysteriously and rapidly collapsed in the seventh century A.D., leaving behind its ruined cities amid the tropical forests.

Mexic

The Mexic civilization emerged from the decline of the Mayan civilization and merged with the Yucatec to form a broader Central American civilization. A period of instability, known as the Time of Troubles, lasted until 1521 A.D., during which the Aztecs were close to establishing a universal state. However, the arrival of the Spanish marked the end of this potential, leading to the loss of the Mexic civilization's unique identity with the advent of Western civilization.

Minoan

The Minoan civilization arose on the Aegean islands before 3000 B.C., with the sea as its primary challenge. It experienced a Time of Troubles from an unspecified date until 1750 B.C., after which it was unified under a universal state known as the Thalassocracy of Minos, enjoying 350 years of peace. The subsequent Heroic Age, characterized by invasions by barbarians and the collapse of the Minoan universal state, is reflected in the epic poetry of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

Orthodox Christian—Main Body

Orthodox Christian civilization, alongside Western civilization, is a direct descendant of Hellenic civilization. It arose due to a division within the Catholic Church, resulting in the formation of two separate entities: the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. This division began with the Iconoclastic controversy in the eighth century and was finalized in 1054. Between 977 and 1372, Orthodox Christian civilization experienced a period of instability, which concluded with the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, a universal state that endured from 1372 to 1768. Today, Orthodox Christianity is predominantly found in southern and eastern Europe.

Orthodox Christian—Russian Offshoot

The Russian branch of Orthodox Christian civilization originated in Russia during the tenth century. Its period of turmoil began in the twelfth century with the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus into competing states, exacerbated by the Mongol invasion in 1238. This period of unrest concluded in 1478 with the formation of a universal state through the union of Muscovy and Novgorod, which persisted until 1881. Like all thriving civilizations, the Russian branch of Orthodox civilization has been significantly influenced, sometimes to the point of disruption, by Western civilization.

Scandinavian

The Scandinavian civilization emerged following the dissolution of the Roman Empire. Isolated from Roman Christendom, the Scandinavians developed their pagan civilization, driven by Viking conquests from the eighth to the eleventh century. Despite its growth, the civilization's decline began when the Icelanders embraced Christianity in the year 1000.

Sinic

The Sinic civilization originated in the lower Yellow River valley in northern China around 1500 B.C. It faced challenges such as marshes, flooding, and extreme temperatures. Its era of turmoil spanned from 634 to 221 B.C., culminating in the formation of a universal state with the Ts’in Empire, later succeeded by the Han Empire. The Sinic civilization is renowned for producing Confucius and the significant works of Taoism and is also associated with Mahayana Buddhism, which arrived from the Indic civilization.

Sumeric

The Sumeric civilization began in the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley around 4300–3100 B.C., overcoming a challenging jungle-swamp environment. It experienced a period of conflict from approximately 2677–2298 B.C., during which Sumerian city-states were at war. This instability ended with the establishment of the Empire of Sumer and Akkad, which brought unity and peace in a universal state lasting until 2230 B.C. The empire was restored by Hammurabi around 1947 B.C., but disintegrated following his death.

Syriac

The Syriac civilization originated in Syria prior to 1100 B.C. as the Minoan civilization was collapsing. Between approximately 937 and 525 B.C., it underwent a tumultuous period known as the Time of Troubles. It later evolved into a universal state as part of the Achaemenian Empire from around 525 to 332 B.C. In the final century B.C., it integrated the Babylonic civilization. Another universal state emerged during the Arab Caliphate from 640 to 969 A.D. Syriac society is known for three major accomplishments: the creation of the alphabet, the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean, and the development of a monotheistic view of God shared by Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam. Through its universal church, Islam, the Syriac civilization played a role in the development of both Iranic and Arabic civilizations.

Western

Western civilization began in Western Europe before the year 700 A.D. Linked to the Hellenic civilization, it arose from the disorder that ensued following the fall of the Roman Empire. By the eighth century, it encompassed only Britain and the territories ruled by Charlemagne in Western Europe, but it has consistently sought to expand its reach. This expansion gained momentum in the last quarter of the fifteenth century. Since that time, Western civilization has spread worldwide, often encroaching upon or absorbing other existing civilizations. This is especially evident in the realms of economics and politics; however, this dominance has not yet erased the unique cultures of other civilizations. Western Civilization can be segmented into four eras: the Dark Ages (675–1075); the Middle Ages (1075–1475); the Modern Period (1475–1875); and from 1875 onward, which Toynbee tentatively calls Postmodern.

Yucatec

The Yucatec civilization was a successor of the Mayan civilization. It emerged after 629 A.D. on the barren limestone plateau of the Yucatan Peninsula, facing the challenges of a dry, treeless landscape. It also needed to establish its own identity separate from the declining Mayan civilization. Although its people were proficient in metallurgy, the Yucatec civilization never reached the heights of the Mayan civilization and was eventually absorbed by the Mexic civilization in the twelfth century.