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The Souls of Black Folk

by W. E. B. Du Bois

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Analysis

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In the "Forethought" to The Souls of Black Folk, W. E. B. Du Bois appeals to the "patience" of the reader as he embarks upon what is essentially a journey into the Black experience in America at the turn of the twentieth century. Du Bois is uncompromising in his statement that the "color-line" is the problem that will define twentieth-century race relations: he also identifies, right from the beginning, the concept of the "Veil" that conceals the Black experience from white understanding, just as it prevents Black Americans from accessing the opportunity and freedom that lie beyond. The Souls of Black Folk, then, is a book about racism, but more than that, it is an attempt to lift the metaphorical veil that divides Black from white in order to properly explain the experience of racism to those who have never had to live with it. Du Bois believes strongly in the instrumental importance of education in minimizing divisions between the races: this book is an attempt on his part to use his own education in order to bridge a divide that has long been thought unbridgeable.

The Souls of Black Folk is a seminal work in the genre of American literature on both race and on society. The triple ideas that underpin Du Bois's characterization of the Black experience—that of the color line, the veil, and the state of "double consciousness" in which Black Americans live—all informed subsequent theory on this subject as the twentieth century progressed. Du Bois does not present Black Americans as a monolith, taking care to shine a light upon Black people from all corners of society, but he does explain patiently and from multiple angles how all Black people, whether rich or poor, Northern or Southern, suffer the impact of racism. Black Americans, from birth, are cursed with the difficulty of meshing their Black identity with their American identity without losing either. In explaining this, Du Bois simultaneously accepts that it is indeed difficult to see how Black society can be fully assimilated into white society; the drive toward assimilation within society is twinned with that toward assimilation within the Black American self. But Du Bois also notes that, for as long as that segregation exists, Black people suffer not only at the hands of racist white people, but also at the hands of well-meaning whites, as well as other Black people who have internalized racist ideas. It is only by becoming one society and by understanding each other, Du Bois suggests, that any of these problems will ever be solved.

Du Bois's chief focus in his book is upon showcasing those lives that American history has traditionally disregarded. It is for this reason that Du Bois highlights the experiences of such men as Alexander Crummell, whom he juxtaposes against the better-known Booker T. Washington, forcing the reader to confront the challenges posed to a just society by Washington's segregationist approach. But Du Bois also escorts his white reader into parts of America they may never have thought about, introducing them to figures such as Josie, the Black girl who yearned to leave Tennessee for school and never managed to, and indeed to his own son, whose early death felt almost a blessing as well as a curse, because it offered an escape from racism. By showing his own emotional pain in this chapter, Du Bois truly underscores how deeply racism cuts for a Black person. In this chapter, as in the short story of John Jones, Du Bois alludes to the idea that, to a Black person at the time of writing, death sometimes feels the only escape from racism. He appeals here to the emotions of the reader in the hopes that they, too, albeit on the other side of the veil, might grasp how truly difficult it is to live under such a cloud.

To the modern reader, some elements of Du Bois's writing are mildly uncomfortable; it is evident that, as he gently invites the white reader to join him in the "Jim Crow car" on his journey through the Black experience, Du Bois is mindful of white sensibilities and sometimes seeks to calm racist white fears. For example, although he does not state outright that some whites are opposed to Black education not because they think Black men incapable of learning, but because they fear the potential power of educated Blacks, he does assure his reader that most educated Black men are not "agitators." In calming this fear, Du Bois to an extent is doing what he criticizes Washington for doing: appealing to the racist white mind in order to advance his point. However, Du Bois's book, at the time of its publication, was a phenomenal step in the direction of Black progress. Although of course he could not cover miles in a single bound, the personal appeal of his writing, combined with its educated, almost anthropological investigations of Black societies and cultures, did much to further the cause of Black progress in the United States. Du Bois not only lifts the "Veil" for the reader, he also points out that it exists, and how damaging it is, in a way that promotes the sympathy and understanding he believed to be crucial for the advancement of his cause.

Historical Context

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All the essays in The Souls of Black Folk were composed around the turn of the century, a crucial period in U.S. history concerning race relations. Following the end of the Civil War, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments were passed in 1868 and 1870, respectively, to recognize Black Americans as U.S. citizens and grant them equal protection under the law. Despite these amendments, segregation remained prevalent by the turn of the century, especially in the South. Although the Southern states received aid during the Reconstruction period, the region continued to feel the repercussions of the Civil War by the late 1800s, and race relations were marked by white hostility toward Black individuals. Restrictions were placed on Black employment opportunities and property ownership, interracial marriage was illegal in every state, and all public facilities, including schools, restaurants, hospitals, and public transportation, were segregated by race. At its most horrifying extreme, violating the unspoken segregation code resulted in murder; between 1884 and 1900, two thousand Black individuals were lynched by mobs in the United States.

During this era, there were some organized efforts to legally challenge segregation. For instance, in 1896, a group of African-American and white citizens contested the constitutionality of separate railroad cars for Black and white individuals in the Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson. Although the constitutionality of segregated cars was upheld, the case marked the beginning of an organized response to Jim Crow conditions. National trends leaned towards policies that restricted the rights of Black people; in 1898, the Supreme Court, in the case of Williams v. Mississippi, sanctioned a system of poll taxes and literacy tests as voting requirements to disenfranchise African Americans. At the turn of the century, Booker T. Washington, the principal of the Tuskegee Institute for Black education in Tuskegee, Alabama, was the most influential and widely accepted African-American figure among whites. In 1895, he delivered his notable compromise speech, advocating that Black people accept a lower social status, relinquish political power, and pursue vocational rather than higher education.

Simultaneously, Du Bois was emerging as a sociologist, activist, and advocate for equal rights and higher education for African Americans. The Industrial Revolution was transforming America, drawing more Blacks to urban centers and subjecting them to exploitation, resulting in poverty and ghettos. Du Bois worked to demonstrate that these conditions were symptomatic of systemic issues rather than inherent to the group. He and other more militant African Americans publicly opposed Washington, embodying the philosophical divide over race relations. In the ensuing years, Du Bois’ efforts would lead to the formation of the NAACP, an organization that would profoundly alter the landscape of race relations in the United States.

Du Bois begins his work by clearly stating his objective: to convey the experience of being black in America at the dawn of the twentieth century. He believes race will be the central issue of the coming century. This is outlined in his forethought, followed by a loosely thematic grouping of the subsequent essays.

The initial three chapters in The Souls of Black Folk deal with historical and political matters. He opens ‘‘Of Our Spiritual Strivings’’ with a provocative question that underlines all other inquiries posed to him: ‘‘How does it feel to be a problem?’’ This essay tackles that fundamental question by discussing the contradictions inherent in the process of ‘‘striving.” Here, Du Bois explores efforts toward achieving the ballot and literacy, setting the stage for the topics to come in what is essentially an extended prologue. ‘‘Of the Dawn of Freedom’’ provides a straightforward history of how the U.S. government attempted to address the ‘‘problem” of African Americans just before, during, and after the Civil War, covering the years 1861 through 1872. This essay offers a balanced analysis of the Freedmen's Bureau’s policies, highlighting both their strengths and weaknesses, and showing how its unfinished work shaped future social and racial issues. ‘‘Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others’’ critiques the policies of the renowned educator and speaker, who was Du Bois' philosophical opponent and rival at the time. Du Bois argues that Washington's work reflects an indoctrination in the shallowest of American values—commercialism and materialism—and that it is self-serving. He examines the historical precedents of Washington's policies of submission and technical education, detailing their shortcomings and inevitable consequences.

In the next six chapters, Du Bois transitions from the general to the specific, taking the reader ‘‘within the veil’’ in his own words. He shares stories from his experiences in the South, provides portraits of real people, and infuses these narratives with his sociological insights. He recounts anecdotes about teaching school during his time as a student at Fisk College, describes the conditions of workers in cotton mills, and depicts the transformation of Atlanta and its outskirts from a pastoral idyll to an industrial wasteland. He narrates a journey through the black belt of Georgia and examines the legacy of slavery in the race relations of the South in ‘‘Of the Sons of Master and Man.’’ These stories reveal the struggles of poor, uneducated black individuals and seek to elicit the reader's compassion. Du Bois’ personal tales and vivid descriptions of the Southern landscape are balanced by his analyses of the evolution of black education and his argument that intellectual training will benefit the entire culture of the South.

The final five chapters explore African-American spirituality through both analytical discussions and personal stories. In "The Faith of Our Fathers," Du Bois examines the history, influence, power, and contradictions of religion for black Americans. He shares his personal mourning process over the loss of his son in "Of the Passing of the First Born." In "Of Alexander Crummell," he provides a biographical account of one man's efforts to uplift his community. "Of the Coming of John" is a brief parable that highlights the tragic potential outcome of the "veil." Lastly, "Of the Sorrow Songs" delves into the history, significance, and purpose of the music that precedes each chapter.

Expert Q&A

What does DuBois mean in this quote from The Souls of Black Folk about economic progress and political rights?

"Nine millions of men can make effective progress in economic lines if they are deprived of political rights, made a servile caste, & allowed only the most meager chance for developing their exceptional men?”

In the quote from The Souls of Black Folk, DuBois challenges Booker T. Washington's view that economic progress can lead to political rights for Black Americans. DuBois argues that without political rights and social recognition, true economic progress is unattainable. He believes that being relegated to a "servile caste" prevents any genuine advancement, emphasizing that political and social equality must precede economic development for meaningful progress.

The relevance of Du Bois's "color line" in the 21st century

The "color line" concept introduced by W.E.B. Du Bois remains relevant in the 21st century as it addresses ongoing racial inequalities and systemic discrimination. Despite progress in civil rights, disparities in education, employment, healthcare, and criminal justice persist, reflecting the enduring impact of racial divisions in society.

Dualism and the Veil

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Dualism
In ‘‘Of Our Spiritual Strivings,’’ Du Bois references the experience of ‘‘double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others.’’ This notion of dual identity is prevalent throughout the text in almost every essay and is crucial to the author's aim of elucidating the African-American experience. Du Bois argues that African Americans endure a division in self-perception because they are viewed with ‘‘contempt and pity” by the majority of their fellow Americans. As both ‘‘Negro” and American, black people are categorized into public and private identities, with neither being recognized as complete by mainstream, white America. This theme also reflects the contradictory nature of American policies towards black people during the time the work was written. For instance, as an African American in New England, Du Bois could attend Harvard University and enjoy many of the privileges of any citizen, but when living in the South, he was subject to Jim Crow laws. The United States comprises both the North and South, yet national race policy is divided.

The ‘‘Veil”
Du Bois first mentions the ‘‘veil” in his forethought and extends the metaphor throughout the text. The ‘‘veil” represents a metaphoric barrier between black people and white America that obscures the true identity of black individuals. Du Bois attributes the confused dual identity of his people to the ‘‘veil,” which also prevents blacks from seeing themselves fully. According to Arnold Rampersad, author of The Art and Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois, the ‘‘veil” also ‘‘unites Black men. They are drawn together for reasons sprung, ‘above all, from the sight of the ‘‘veil” that hung between us and Opportunity.’’’ Du Bois expands on his metaphor with extensive use of visual imagery, or the lack thereof. Terms like darkness, light, brightness, shadow, and haze frequently appear throughout the text. In essence, according to Du Bois, the challenge in perception is fundamental to the African American experience.

Literary Style

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Form
The collection comprises fourteen chapters, an introduction, and an afterward. With one exception, each chapter (whether an essay or story) begins with a quotation from a famous Western literary source, followed by lines of music from African-American oral tradition. This creates a frame for each essay, drawing from both the recognized cultural establishment and the widely-known but often uncredited tradition of slave songs and spirituals. This framing effect provides a sense of support from both within the black community and the broader cultural milieu, placing the two traditions on equal footing. The first essay, "Of Our Spiritual Strivings," opens with verses depicting endless yearning, while the final piece, "The Song of Sorrows," concludes with a song offering hope to the weary traveler. This effectively brackets all the essays within a spectrum of songs that describe the extremes of the black experience. The collection is further framed by an introduction that appeals to the reader for understanding and patience regarding the author's cause, and an After-Thought that makes a similar appeal in a stylized, poetic form.

Point of View
Most of the content in The Souls of Black Folk is presented in essay form, written in third-person prose. The tone is didactic, characterized by formality and the long, classical sentence structure typical of nineteenth-century writing. The prose's lyricism and the text's flexible form suggest an influence of Romanticism, a period that ended around the close of the nineteenth century, blended with Du Bois' rational analysis, data, and personal experience. Arnold Rampersad, in The Art and Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois, observes that "devices of the traditional pastoral elegy are present in modified but distinct form," such as the depiction of withering roses in the essay about the death of Du Bois' infant son. Occasionally, Du Bois employs the second person, particularly in the introduction, where he states his objectives and urges the reader on how and why to engage with the text. In these instances, his tone is both appealing and emphatic about the truth and significance of his work. "Of the Coming of John" stands out from the other essays as it is a parable, and the text also includes poetry by Du Bois and other authors.

Symbolism
Du Bois primarily uses vision-related symbolism. His main metaphor, the "veil," represents the distance and misunderstanding between black and white Americans, and it influences how African Americans perceive themselves in a dualistic and distorted manner. Darkness often symbolizes ignorance and despair, as seen in the opening of "The Sorrow Songs," where enslaved black people are referred to as "they that walked in darkness." Other imagery related to impaired vision includes haze, dimness, dusk, shadow, and mist.

Expert Q&A

Does W.E.B. De Bois' tone in The Souls of Black Folk change throughout the story, and can a story have multiple tones?

W.E.B. Du Bois' tone in The Souls of Black Folk varies, reflecting scholarly, critical, and elegiac moods throughout the essays. This multiplicity of tones is possible because the book is a collection of essays that explore complex themes of race. While sadness pervades the work due to the historical context of racial tension and injustice, Du Bois also conveys hope, especially in the concluding chapter, suggesting a future redemption for America.

Compare and Contrast

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  • 1900: Over two thousand African Americans are lynched or burned alive in the fifteen years leading up to the 20th century. The white perpetrators face no consequences.

    Today: Hate crimes driven by racial motives are rare but still occur, as evidenced by the case of James Byrd, Jr. In 1998, three white men dragged Byrd behind their vehicle, leading to his death. The men responsible were convicted and received death sentences.

  • 1896: The Supreme Court, in Plessy v. Ferguson, upholds the constitutionality of racially segregated railroad cars.

    1955: The Supreme Court, in Brown v. Board of Education, declares that racial segregation in schools is unconstitutional. Despite this decision, schools in the South remain largely segregated.

    Today: While some schools exhibit disparities due to socioeconomic factors, none in the United States are legally segregated.

  • 1903: In The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois calls for equal opportunity and treatment for both whites and blacks, advocating for the same standards of competency.

    1972: The Equal Opportunity Act of 1972 broadens Title VII protections to include schools, thereby extending affirmative action policies to colleges and universities to support minorities.

    1995: Governor Pete Wilson and the University of California decide to abolish affirmative action in hiring and admissions throughout the state.

Media Adaptations

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  • The Souls of Black Folk can be accessed as an e-book through Microsoft Reader.
  • The Souls of Black Folk is additionally available on four audiocassettes narrated by Walter Covell.

Bibliography and Further Reading

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Sources
Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. Library of America, 1986, pp. 3-191.

Ferris, William H. "The Souls of Black Folk: The Book in Its Era." In Critical Essays on W. E. B. Du Bois, edited by William L. Andrews. G. K. Hall & Co., 1985, pp. 125-27.

Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. Introduction to The Souls of Black Folk, by W. E. B. Du Bois. Bantam, 1989, pp. xiv-xvii.

Rampersad, Arnold. The Art and Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois. Harvard University Press, 1976, pp. 72-88.

Review in New York Times, April 25, 1903.

Further Reading
Broderick, Francis L. W. E. B. DuBois: Negro Leader in a Time of Crisis. Stanford University Press, 1959. Broderick, writing during Du Bois' lifetime, explores Du Bois' life and achievements.

Gutman, Herbert G. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom 1750-1925. Random House, 1976. Gutman delivers a comprehensive sociological and historical analysis of African-American life during and just after slavery.

Rampersad, Arnold. The Art and Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois. Harvard University Press, 1976. Rampersad thoroughly examines Du Bois' unique stylistic approach to writing.

Tuttle, William M. Great Lives Observed: W. E. B. Du Bois. Prentice-Hall, 1973. This collection features articles and essays on Du Bois' work in the context of his life.

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