Forms and Devices

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The sonnet is a highly concentrated work of art in which the poet must develop and resolve his theme within the strict confines of the sonnet form. Sonnet 19, like all Shakespeare’s sonnets, follows a standard pattern. It consists of three quatrains and a concluding couplet, and it follows the rhyme scheme abab, cdcd, efef, gg.

The meaning of the sonnet is reinforced by the variations Shakespeare makes in the meter. This takes the form of a subtle counterpoint between the regular metrical base, which is iambic pentameter, and the spoken rhythm—what one actually hears when the sonnet is read. For example, in the first quatrain, the theme of the destructiveness of time is brought out more forcefully by a series of metrical inversions.

In the third foot in the first line (“blunt thou”), a trochee is substituted for an iamb, resulting in a strong stress falling on the first syllable. This gives “blunt” a much stronger impact than it would otherwise have, especially as the rest of the line follows a regular iambic rhythm. In line two, the last foot is a spondee rather than an iamb, resulting in two heavy stresses on “sweet brood.” The emphasis on the “sweetness of what time destroys” makes the work of time seem even more harsh. Line 3 is a very irregular line, echoing the turbulence of the sense. There is a metrical inversion in the first foot (it is trochaic, not iambic) that serves to highlight the word “Pluck.” This recalls, through assonance, the “blunt” of line 1. Both of these are forceful words that express the way in which time assaults the natural world. The second foot of line 3 is a spondee, and the assonance contained in “keen teeth” adds to its prominent impact in the line. The fourth foot of this line is also a spondee, making the “fierce tiger” very fierce indeed. Line 3 in particular, with its high number of stressed syllables, brings out the idea of time as an aggressive, fearsome warrior going to battle against all living things.

The meter of the second quatrain is more regular than the first. The speedy passage of the end of line 5 (“as thou fleet’st”) echoes the sense, and this is emphasized again by the heavy stress on “swift” in line 6. In the third quatrain, the turbulent rhythm and harsh consonants of the earlier part of the sonnet vanish as the poet turns his attention to the friend. The smooth and regular iambic rhythm of line 12, for example, “For beauty’s pattern to succeeding men,” suggests the perfection of the friend.

Time makes a forceful reappearance in the first line of the couplet, with the spondee, “old Time,” prominently positioned immediately before the caesura. This makes the triumph of the last line, in which the poet obtains his victory through the power of his pen (a contrast to the seemingly all-powerful “antique pen” of time), all the more striking and effective.

Historical Context

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The sonnet as a literary genre originated in Italy and is closely associated with Francis Petrarch (1304–1374). Petrarch was captivated by the first sight of a woman he called “Laura,” whom he adored from a distance for twenty years until her death in 1348, and for ten years afterwards. The poems he composed expressing his unrequited love for Laura sparked a trend that endured for centuries in Western poetry.

The typical Petrarchan sonnet is structured into an octave (eight lines) where the subject is introduced and explored, followed by a sestet (six lines) where the poem shifts direction, offering a resolution or an alleviation of the problem.

This sonnet...

(This entire section contains 761 words.)

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form made its way to England two hundred years following Petrarch. The earliest English sonneteers were Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503–1542) and Henry Howard, the Earl of Surrey (1517–1547). Initially, many of their sonnets were near translations of Petrarch’s works, but eventually, a distinct form emerged, known as the English sonnet. In this form, also referred to as the Shakespearean sonnet, the central idea or theme is developed over three quatrains and resolved in a final couplet.

By the 1590s, when Shakespeare was penning his sonnets, the sonnet had become a popular literary trend. It seemed that nearly every poet in England was producing sonnets in abundance. Sonnet cycles, which narrated the poet’s initial encounter with his love and the ensuing trials and tribulations, became fashionable. Some cycles were based on real-life experiences, while others were purely fictional. The most renowned sonnet cycle was Sir Philip Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella (1591). Its success inspired many imitations, such as Samuel Daniel’s Delia (1592), Michael Drayton’s Ideas Mirrour (1594), and Edmund Spenser’s Amoretti (1595). However, the sonnet craze was relatively short-lived, and by 1597, with the release of Robert Tofte’s Laura, it had nearly faded away.

Outside of Sidney’s work, few of these sonnets are widely read today, mostly attracting the attention of period scholars. To contemporary readers, many of these sonnets might appear tedious, artificial, and clichéd. However, it is crucial to recognize that this was the literary context within which Shakespeare crafted his own sonnets. He worked within a traditional form with strict conventions. Certain themes were obligatory: the poet would profess his love and extol his beloved with exaggerated language, often employing “conceits” or imaginative comparisons. He would also lament her “cruelty” in rejecting or ignoring him, bemoan the sleepless nights and emotional anguish caused by their separation, and express anxiety about losing her to a rival. Additionally, he would frequently assert the enduring nature of his poetry.

However, Shakespeare did not strictly adhere to tradition. His sonnets differ significantly from those of his predecessors and contemporaries. Most notably, the majority of Shakespeare’s sonnets are directed towards a young man rather than a woman, and this young man seems to belong to a higher social class than the poet. Additionally, the Dark Lady, characterized by her black eyes and hair, features in over twenty sonnets and stands in stark contrast to the typical sonnet lady.

Shakespeare himself acknowledges this deviation in Sonnet 130, which parodies the conventional descriptions used by other sonneteers:

My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun
Coral is far more red than her lips’ red
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.

The term “dun” refers to a dull grayish-brown color, which is far from flattering. Moreover, the lady's black hair contrasts sharply with the traditional golden hair of the beloved in typical sonnets.

This sonnet is often seen as a parody of a sonnet published by Thomas Watson in 1582, which starts with:

Hark you that list to hear what saint I serve
Her yellow locks exceed the beaten gold
Her sparkling eyes in heaven a place deserve
Her forehead high and fair of comely mould.

Shakespeare further breaks away from convention by portraying the Dark Lady as lacking virtue. Despite being in love with her, almost unwillingly, he does not see her as morally upright. Instead, he depicts her as promiscuous and untrustworthy, unlike the chaste and virtuous women typically celebrated in sonnets.

Shakespeare’s sonnets achieve a psychological depth in their exploration of the poet’s emotional experiences with the friend and the Dark Lady, a complexity unmatched by his contemporaries. By taking the established themes and poetic forms of Elizabethan literary culture, Shakespeare’s inventive and introspective approach elevated them to unprecedented heights. Ironically, by the time his sonnets were published in 1609, the sonnet craze that had inspired them had already waned.

Literary Style

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A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem that adheres to specific, well-known conventions in its rhyme scheme. The Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains (a stanza of four lines) that develop the thought or argument, followed by a final couplet (two lines) that resolves the issue, often with a clever or unexpected twist. The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg, meaning line 1 rhymes with line 3, line 2 with line 4, line 5 with line 7, and so forth.

Shakespeare’s sonnets are written in iambic pentameter, which means each line contains five metrical feet, each foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Each foot comprises two beats. Nevertheless, Shakespeare frequently varies this basic metrical rhythm. This creates a counterpoint between the fixed metrical pattern (what we typically expect to hear) and the variable elements (what we actually hear). These variations introduce subtle emphases and effects that wouldn't otherwise be present.

Sonnet 19 provides numerous examples of metrical variation. In the third foot of line 1, the poet substitutes a trochaic foot (a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable) for the regular iambic foot. This reversal of the expected rhythm emphasizes the word “blunt,” giving more force to the actions of time. A similar inversion occurs in line 3, where the first foot is a trochee instead of an iamb, making the word “Pluck” stand out against the metrical base, once again highlighting Time’s destructive actions. These two words, “blunt” and “pluck,” are further linked through the poetic device of assonance, the repetition of vowel sounds.

Another variation in the metrical rhythm appears in line 3. The second foot (“keen teeth”) is a spondee, meaning it has two stressed syllables. Coming right after the inversion that emphasized “pluck,” this drives home Time’s act of pulling out even the sharpest teeth. This effect is enhanced by the assonance of the long vowel sounds and the fact that pronouncing these words bares the teeth.

The metrical rhythm becomes more regular with the start of the third quatrain. As the poet recalls his friend, the smoother rhythm and lack of harsh consonants convey a sense of calm. The most notable metrical variation occurs at the beginning of line 11, where the inversion of the first foot produces the trochee “Him in,” placing the stress on the first word. This accentuates the importance and significance of the poet’s friend.

Alliteration, the repetition of consonant sounds, is another technique utilized in this sonnet to enhance its meaning. For instance, in line 4, the recurring "b" sounds in "burn" and "blood" connect the destructiveness of time with the vitality of life (represented by "blood"). Another instance is the alliteration of the "c" sound from the word "crime" at the end of line 8, linking it with "carve" in the next line, which underscores the poet’s belief that it is a crime for time to etch lines on a person's face. Lastly, the "b" sound in "beauty" in line 12 echoes back to "burn" and "blood" in line 4, reinforcing one of the sonnet’s central themes: the fleeting nature of beauty.

Further examples of assonance highlight the nuanced meanings that such poetic devices can convey. In line 1, the long vowel sound in "Devouring" is echoed in "thou." The act of pronouncing these vowels, which requires opening the mouth wide as if to consume, emphasizes the devouring nature of time. Finally, in the concluding couplet, the assonance of the vowel sound in the repeated "thy" (line 13) with the repeated "my" in line 14 accentuates the contrast between time as a destroyer and the poet as a creator.

Compare and Contrast

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  • 1590s: Authors who were neither courtiers nor nobles needed to secure financial support from a wealthy patron. They would dedicate their work to the patron and heap praise upon him, hoping the nobleman would be flattered enough to help further their career. Occasionally, writers would be welcomed into the patron’s literary or intellectual circles.

    Today: Instead of seeking private patrons, poets and writers often look for grants from government-funded organizations like the National Endowment for the Humanities. They might also receive advances against future royalties from publishers or work as creative writing professors at colleges and universities.

  • 1609: Shakespeare’s sonnets were published, seemingly without his consent. In Elizabethan and Jacobean England, authors did not hold copyright to their work, and publishers were not required to obtain the author’s permission for publication. Once published, the copyright belonged to the publisher, and authors did not receive royalties from book sales. All published books had to be approved by political and ecclesiastical authorities.

    Today: Strict copyright laws ensure that a writer’s work cannot be published without their consent. Legally binding contracts between authors and publishers protect the rights of both parties. Authors receive royalties based on sales. In the United States and most other democratic nations, neither the government nor religious organizations control what a commercial publisher can publish.

  • 1564-1616: Throughout Shakespeare’s lifetime, Europe was continually at war. From 1585 onwards, England was engaged in conflicts in the Netherlands, Ireland, and at sea. In 1588, England defeated the Spanish Armada, and for much of this period, England maintained the balance of power between France and Spain.

    Today: England, France, and Spain are all members of the European Community. The economic and political connections between Western European nations are now so strong that war between them is inconceivable.

Media Adaptations

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  • The sonnets have been recorded on audiotape in various versions. Sonnets by William Shakespeare, released by Caedmon in 1988, features the distinguished British Shakespearean actor Sir John Gielgud reading 120 sonnets.
  • All 154 sonnets are included on the CD The Sonnets, by William Shakespeare, read by Alex Jennings and released by Naxos Audio Books in 1998.
  • An unabridged version is available on the audiocassette The Complete Shakespeare Sonnets, narrated by Jane Alexander, Patrick Stewart, and Alfred Molina. This edition was released by Airplay Inc. in 1999.
  • Shakespeare’s Sonnets, by William Shakespeare, read by Simon Callow, is an audiocassette issued by HighBridge Company in 1996.

Bibliography and Further Reading

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Sources
Booth, Stephen. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Yale University Press, 1977.

Hardin, Craig, ed. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Scott, Foresman and Company, 1973.

Martin, Philip. Shakespeare’s Sonnets: Self, Love and Art. Cambridge University Press, 1972.

Muir, Kenneth. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. George Allen and Unwin, 1979.

Rowse, A. L. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Harper and Row, 1964.

Sitwell, Edith. A Notebook on William Shakespeare. Beacon Press, 1961.

Smith, Hallett. The Tension of the Lyre: Poetry in Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Huntingdon Library, 1981.

For Further Study
Auden, W. H. “Introduction,” in Shakespeare: The Sonnets, edited by William Burto. Penguin, 1999. This engaging and opinionated essay by one of the twentieth century’s greatest poets delves into the sonnets. Auden dismisses attempts to identify real-life figures in the sonnets, suggesting instead that they stem from a mystical perception he calls the Vision of Eros.

Bloom, Harold, ed. William Shakespeare’s Sonnets: Modern Critical Interpretations. Chelsea House, 1987. This book features six critical essays on the sonnets, varying in complexity. For beginners, C. L. Barber’s “An Essay on Shakespeare’s Sonnets” is particularly helpful, arguing that Shakespeare uses the sonnets to transform suffering into passion.

Blomquist, Eric. Sonnet Central Web Site. http://www.sonnets.org/ This website offers a comprehensive collection of sonnets from various eras, including many Elizabethan ones, along with critical essays. Though the essays are somewhat dated (1885-1917), they remain valuable. The site also allows users to submit their own sonnets and participate in a sonnet competition.

Fussell, Paul. Poetic Meter and Poetic Form, Revised edition. Random House, 1979. This guide is a clear and concise examination of different meters and poetic forms in English poetry. It includes a chapter on the sonnet, explaining the structure of the Shakespearean sonnet and how it contrasts with the Petrarchan form.

Leishman, J. B. Themes and Variations in Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Harper, 1963. Leishman investigates the theme of immortalization through poetry, tracing it from Roman authors like Pindar to Petrarch, Pierre de Ronsard, and Shakespeare’s English predecessors. He also explores the theme of “devouring time and fading beauty” from ancient Greeks to Shakespeare, highlighting Shakespeare’s unique approach to these themes.

Lever, J. W. The Elizabethan Love Sonnet. Methuen, 1956. Lever’s book includes chapters on the Petrarchan sonnet and Elizabethan sonneteers such as Wyatt, Surrey, Sidney, and Spenser. He then provides a masterful and accessible analysis of Shakespeare’s sonnets, which he considers the pinnacle of Elizabethan lyric poetry.

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