Historical Context
The Rise of Franco
The tumultuous Spanish Civil War (1936–39) concluded with an undeniable victory for the far-right forces, steered by Nationalist General Francisco Franco, who received significant support from Adolf Hitler’s Germany and Benito Mussolini’s Italy. Franco’s army brutally overpowered the leftist Republican Popular Front, which had only recently assumed power through legitimate elections six months prior to the outbreak of war. Franco’s dominion, spanning from 1939 until 1975, was marked starkly in its early years by a ruthless regime. Military tribunals imposed harsh sentences, political purges were widespread, regional languages and cultures were stifled, and censorship loomed over the arts, affecting playwrights such as Buero Vallejo. Meanwhile, the nation languished under economic despair.
Under Franco's rule, soldiers who had fought for the Republicans were herded into camps where starvation awaited them as they lingered for court martial proceedings. Members of labor syndicates and the Popular Front faced the looming threat of trials. The Popular Front, birthed in 1935 under Stalin’s orchestration, advocated for alliances between socialists and communists globally to combat the rise of fascism, particularly in Franco’s Spain. Echoing the draconian measures of Ferdinand’s era, Freemasonry was branded as a grievous crime, with an estimated one million people incarcerated. Thousands faced execution; Mussolini’s son-in-law, Count Ciano, reported a harrowing number of daily executions across major cities like Madrid, Barcelona, and Seville. From 1939 to 1941, approximately 200,000 were executed, though these state-sanctioned killings eventually subsided. Many prisoners were released only after their health was ravaged by hard labor, or their societal roles obliterated. Buero Vallejo, having served as a medic for the Popular Front, was imprisoned for six years post-war. During his incarceration, Spain entered World War II, aligning with the Axis powers by dispatching 40,000 soldiers against the Allies. As the tides of war turned against the Axis, Spain proclaimed neutrality yet discreetly supplied raw materials to the Allies, thus evading post-war sanctions.
Challenges to Franco's Regime
Despite Franco’s ironclad grip on power, opposition simmered beneath the surface. Monarchists, rallied by Don Juan, heir to Alfonso XIII, alongside communist guerillas, posed ongoing challenges. This era saw the Catholic Church exerting control over Spain’s education system, and the nation, by choice and due to exclusion from the United Nations until 1955, functioned as an autarky. A pivotal 1953 agreement brought American military bases to Spanish soil, furnishing Franco with financial resources to suppress dissent. His alliance with the Pope through a concordat further bolstered his regime's standing.
Cleverly, Franco manipulated his alliances—pitting the ruling Falange party, monarchists, and Catholics against each other—to elevate loyalists and maintain balance among right-wing factions. Meanwhile, a groundswell of dissent rose from the left, driven by student protests, workers’ discontent, and the Communist Party of Spain’s failed attempts to unify opposition. Economic woes deepened, with inflation, mounting deficits, and striking workers. The European currency crisis ushered in the Stabilization Plan of 1959, compelling Franco to abandon autarkic policies in favor of global trade and private enterprise encouragement by 1963. This shift jumpstarted the economy, spurred by tourism, foreign investment, and rising wages, transforming Spain from its agrarian roots to a burgeoning industrial society. The cultural impact was modest, yet the Press Law of 1966 granted increased press freedom. Workers persisted in their demands for fair wages, forming Workers Commissions and even gaining some sympathy from younger clergy members.
Regional Nationalism and the Fall of a Dictator
Throughout Spain, regional nationalism proved to be a formidable opponent. Basque nationalism, particularly, gained traction in the north, winning the clergy’s favor. The infamous Burgos trials against ETA members in 1970 for terrorism further tarnished Franco’s...
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international reputation. As the 1960s unfolded, the question of Franco’s successor loomed large. Franco envisioned Juan Carlos as king and head of state, but the plan faltered. In June 1973, Luis Carrero Blanco, one of Franco’s confidants, was appointed head of state, only to be assassinated by ETA by December. His successor, Carlos Arias Navarro, became the first civilian leader since the Civil War’s outset. Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, paved the way for King Juan Carlos I’s succession. Under Juan Carlos’s leadership, Spain embarked on a path toward internationalization and liberalization, ultimately becoming a member of the European Economic Community, marking a new chapter in its history.
Literary Style
Setting
The Sleep of Reason unfolds in the heart of Madrid during the chilly month of December, 1823, reaching its climax on the 23rd. The drama pulses through three distinct settings: the regal halls of the king's palace, Goya's secluded estate—known as the "quinta del sordo" or "house of the deaf," and the quarters of Father Duaso in Madrid. Goya's abode and the royal palace stand on opposing banks of the Manzanares River, their proximity allowing them to be glimpsed through the lens of a spyglass. All the scenes are intimately staged indoors.
Literary Devices
Foreshadowing dominates as the play's most striking literary device. Its unforgettable manifestation occurs in Goya’s nightmarish vision, where beastly creatures subject him to torment, trial, and degradation, eerily prefiguring the real-world ordeal he faces at the hands of the Royal Volunteers. Allegory weaves another intricate thread, as the narrative mirrors the turbulent Spain of 1823, drawing parallels with Franco's Spain (1939–70) and echoing Buero Vallejo's own imprisonment post-Civil War (1936–39). Goya’s enigmatic Black Paintings serve as a rich tapestry of symbolism and allegory, their complexity so profound that they have fueled countless scholarly interpretations. The play masterfully blends historical realism—capturing genuine events and personas—with the fantastical, exploring the painter's tumultuous psyche, his auditory hallucinatory experiences, and the haunting dreamscapes that plague him.
Dialogue
The narrative flows without soliloquies, leaning heavily on dialogues—primarily between pairs like Ferdinand and Caloverde, Goya and Leocadia, Leocadia and Gumersinda, Duaso and Arrieta, and others. The dialogue’s most intriguing aspect lies in its reliance on sign language, necessitated by Goya’s deafness. It is predominantly used by those addressing Goya, rather than by Goya himself, highlighting his condition. Adding to the richness, disembodied voices populate the play—some belonging to real figures like Mariquita, others emerging from Goya's paintings, heard solely by him, further intensifying the drama.
Set and Sound
In Buero Vallejo’s multimedia spectacle, set and sound burst forth as the most distinguishing features. Beyond the traditional stagecraft of props and costumes, Goya’s paintings are vividly projected, choreographed to align with dialogues or pivotal moments. These artworks serve both as focal points for character discussions and as "silent" yet powerful backdrops to the unfolding drama. Although the play eschews music, it compensates with an array of projected sounds: lines of dialogue, a chorus of disembodied voices, and an auditory tapestry woven from Goya’s imagined heartbeats and hallucinations. Silence, too, plays a key role; when sign language is used, only the visual echo of spoken words remains, expanding the stage's dimensions to envelop the entire theater.
Movement
While movement takes a secondary role in this production, it erupts with intensity during the violations by the Royal Volunteers and the subsequent quarrel between Goya and Leocadia. Movement primarily blossoms through the dynamic sequence of paintings projected onstage and the expressive sign language articulated by Leocadia, Arrieta, and Gumersinda, adding a visual rhythm to the play's narrative.
Compare and Contrast
Artistic Milestones
1823: Within the confines of his abode, the quinta del sordo in Madrid, Goya completes his haunting series of fourteen Black Paintings, a vivid reflection of his inner turmoil and artistic genius.
1969: Vito Acconci takes a bold step into the realm of "body art" with Conversion, a provocative piece where he attempts to obscure his masculine identity, daringly burning away body hair and concealing his genitals.
1970: Jose Gudiol unveils an ambitious four-volume opus, Goya: 1746–1828, Biografia, estudio analitico y catalogo de sus pinturas, enriching Barcelona's literary and artistic landscape.
Today: Resurrected as oil on canvas, the Black Paintings stand proudly restored in Madrid's Prado Museum, inviting admiration from all who venture into their brooding presence.
Political Unrest and Change
1823: With France's intervention to reinstate Ferdinand VII on Spain's throne, Major Rafael de Riego, an instigator of the 1820 Liberal constitutional revolution, meets a grim fate on November 7 through public humiliation and execution for treason. This catalyzes Ferdinand's brutal crackdown on Liberal sympathizers.
1969: Amidst escalating outcry over governmental oppression and the unsettling death of a student in custody, Francisco Franco, Spain’s authoritarian leader, shutters civil liberties for three months. The temporary eradication of free speech, assembly, and protection from unwarranted searches plunges the nation into a period of fear, culminating in the detention of about 700 individuals, including academics.
Today: Spain flourishes as a parliamentary democracy, embracing the inclusive principle of universal suffrage.
Church and State Relations
1823: King Ferdinand VII and the Catholic Church forge a powerful alliance, reclaiming their dominion over Spain and tightening their grip on the nation's spirit and sovereignty.
1970s: A momentous shift occurs as Franco's regime and the Church commence untangling their historically interwoven roles, marking the dawn of separation between ecclesiastical influence and state governance.
Today: Despite being overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, Spain proudly upholds the tenet of religious and governmental autonomy, celebrating the distinct separation of church and state.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Aragones, Emilio, ‘‘Goya, pintor baturro y liberal,’’ in La Estafa Literaria, No. 438, February 15, 1970, p. 36.
Buero Vallejo, Antonio, Three Plays: The Sleep of Reason, The Foundation, and In the Burning Darkness, translated and introduced by Marion Peter Holt, Trinity University Press, 1985, pp. xiv, xii.
Domenech, Ricardo, ‘‘Notas sobre El sueno de la razon’’ in Primer Acto, No. 117, February 1970, p. 8.
Dowling, John, ‘‘Buero Vallejo’s Interpretation of Goya’s ‘Black Paintings,’’’ in Hispania Vol. 56, No. 2, 1973, pp. 449–57.
Fernandez-Santos, Angel, ‘‘Sobre El sueno de la razon de Antonia Buero Vallejo,’’ in Insula, No. 280, March, 1970, p. 15.
Halsey, Martha, Antonio Buero Vallejo, Twayne, 1973, p. 124.
Kronik, John W., ‘‘Buero Vallejo y su sueno de la razon,’’ in El Urogallo, Nos. 5–6, October-November-December, 1970, p. 156.
Nicholas, Robert B., The Tragic Stages of Antonio Buero Vallejo, 1972, No. 23 in the series, Estudios de Hispanofila, Department of Romance Languages, University of North Carolina, p. 96–97.
Further Reading
Bertrand, Louis, and Sir Charles Petrie, The History of Spain, Part I and II, Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1969. Bertrand and Petrie’s work is broken up into short periods for focus and easy digestion. It also contains ancillary materials: maps, several genealogies of royal lines, and a list of important events.
Gudiol, Jose, Goya 1746–1828, Tudor Publishing Company, 1971. This four-volume work has all of Goya’s work in large plates, usually showing both the whole work and often several details. Most plates are in black and white. When looking for the black paintings, prepare to be confused by titles not used by Buero Vallejo.
London, John, Reception and Renewal in Modern Spanish Theatre: 1939–63, W. S. Maney, 1997. London tackles international theater’s impact on Spanish theater. Buero Vallejo’s first major play, Historia de una escalera gets much attention from London as he calls it one of Spain’s two most important post- Civil War plays.
Muller, Priscilla E., Goya’s ‘Black’ Paintings, Hispanic Society of America, 1984. Muller is an incredible critic doing exhaustive research into the possible and best interpretations of Goya’s ambiguous series, made even more difficult to interpret because of decay. Her ambitious attempt is not only to see these works as a series but a series in a particular order of placement on the walls of Goya’s home, the quinta del sordo.
Perez, Sanchez, Alfonso E. Sayre, and Eleanor A. Sayre, Goya and the Spirit of Enlightenment, Bullfinch Press, 1989. For all other works besides the black paintings, this is the best volume for both plates and interpretation. Find The sleep of reason produces monsters on p. 115.
