Critical Overview
Baraka has been a leading figure in the development of African-American literature and thought during the twentieth century. Kimberly W. Benston states that Baraka "is one of the most intriguing, controversial, and enigmatic figures in modern letters.’’ Benston goes on to say that ‘‘Baraka entered the American consciousness not merely as a writer but as an event, a symbolic figure somehow combining the craft and insights of Euro-American radicalism with the rebellious energies of young Afro-America.’’ William J. Harris describes the extensive influence of Baraka on American literature: "Acting as an energetic artist-critic-spokesman, Baraka almost single-handedly changed both the nature and the form of post-World War II Afro-American literature. In addition to being a prime influence on other poets and dramatists of his time, Baraka has also created an original body of work that belongs in the forefront of innovative avant-garde writing, regardless of ethnic background. As a contemporary American artist Baraka must be ranked with the likes of John Coltrane, Ralph Ellison, Norman Mailer, Toni Morrison, and Thomas Pynchon.’’ Harris goes on to describe the extent of Baraka's continuing influence on African-American artistic production throughout the 1990s, stating that ‘‘In essence, Baraka and the Black Arts Movement have had a profound and lasting philosophical and aesthetic impact on all postintegrationist black art; they have turned black art from other-directed to ethnically centered. Thus the contemporary Afro-American artist writes out of his or her own culture and, moreover, is self-consciously an Afro-American.’’
Baraka's influence on African-American theater has been extensive. Nilgun Anadolu-Okur notes that ‘‘At the height of the Black Arts movement Baraka was considered both the theoretician and the practitioner of a new outlook in theater, with his radical propositions engendered in the Revolutionary Theater.’’ In addition to founding the Black Repertory Theater in Harlem in 1965, Baraka has written influential essays on the aesthetic values of black theater, as well as numerous stage plays, most notably, in 1964, the highly celebrated Dutchman. Benston says of Baraka's influence on theater:
From the ground-breaking manifesto 'The Revolutionary Theatre' (1964) to his post-nationalist notes on The Motion of History, Baraka has insisted on a theatre that energetically seeks new forms, new intensity, and new language to present and be a part of our constantly changing culture.
Baraka's own dramatic works have embodied these values, as Benston observes that, ‘‘no single body of plays is more resolutely exploratory than Baraka's.’’
Critics point to the political implications of Baraka's dramatic productions, particularly Slave Ship, as embodied in the aesthetic values of what Baraka called ‘‘revolutionary theater.’’ Anadolu-Okur comments that Baraka's ‘‘ultimate concern has always been with the political functions of drama,’’ observing that Baraka's drama ‘‘was targeted to educate the masses and his people to reclaim their historical consciousness, aesthetic and philosophical assets that spring from the center of Africanness. Renewal of the self and the employment of the new self to acquire a better means of existence became Baraka's fundamental message in his plays.’’ Benston asserts that in the production of Slave Ship, ‘‘the objectives of the 'revolutionary theater' are fully realized.’’ Tejumola Olaniyan, noting that Slave Ship is ‘‘perhaps the most discussed of Baraka's plays’’ of his black nationalist period, observes the ways in which it stands out from his previous plays up to this point: ‘‘It is thematically the most reflective, a deep introspective exploration of the origins of the present struggles for black self-fashioning.... Thus far more than we could say of the other plays, the audience assumed is largely black, and this assumption is woven into the very fabric of the play.''
Baraka subtitled Slave...
(This entire section contains 1156 words.)
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Ship "A Historical Pageant,’’ and critics have commented on the political implications of Baraka's representation of African-American history. Olaniyan observes that, ‘‘The brief successive 'scenes' are like pages in a history book of a people under an imposed, dehumanizing condition.’’ Baraka uses historical reference as a means of defining a contemporary African-American communal identity based on the survival of African cultural roots. Anadolu-Okur notes that the play ‘‘is historical in content, but it uses history metaphorically; in other words a historical dateline is used as a symbol for the present, and enslavement is a current event.’’ In discussing a specific stage production of Slave Ship, Harry J. Elam Jr. observes that, ‘‘As a historical site of unconscionable racial violence, the Slave Ship potently communicated to its spectators an African-American heritage of struggle and survival.’’ Benston notes that, ‘‘At every stage of his evocation of Afro-American history, Baraka insists upon the survival of aboriginal African communalism in the black slave population.’’ This representation of history ultimately asserts the values of a black nationalist identity. Discussing the final action of the play, in which audience members are invited to participate in a communal dance on stage with the actors, Benston asserts that through the play's ‘‘final rite ... the entire assembled black community dons the mask of its ancient spirit and comes to full life as a potent, physical manifestation of the forgotten, but historically nourished, national power. In Slave Ship, the black nation promptly transforms itself into history, for the imitation of suffering has conferred on it a collective past and assigned it a triumphant future.’’ Elam comments on the political implications of the play's ending with audience participation, stating that ‘‘Baraka intends for this final moment of Slave Ship to induce the spectators' participation and compel their activism.’’ Elam concludes ‘‘Slave Ship, in its finale, jolts the audience back into the uncertain 1960s reality, in which victory over white oppression has yet to be achieved.’’
Critics further praise Slave Ship for its use of music as a means of asserting the values of the Black Arts Movement, which celebrate communal African-American identity through African-American cultural practices. According to Benston, ‘‘Slave Ship is the most successful dramatic work to emerge from the Black Arts Movement precisely because it 'reclaims' and utilizes the musical base of the Afro-American genius. Baraka galvanizes a communal response to his vision by calling upon collective creation and participation in the play's musical life.’’ Benston goes on to state that ‘‘The genius of Baraka's play lies in the manner in which the complex black music aesthetic is given precise theatrical embodiment.’’
Critics discuss the emphasis in Slave Ship on theatrical techniques other than standard narrative and dialogue. Benston notes ‘‘Whereas Baraka's earlier plays were characterized by long, illuminating orations, in Slave Ship he emphasizes in every way concrete aspects of pain, the heavy reality of chains, the screams and smells of degradation. There is horror but there is also life, and we feel it all.’’ Elam comments on the impact of these elements of the play: "Because the plot and character delineation of Slave Ship were so sparse, the other elements of the production increased in significance. The performance of Slave Ship emphasized gestures and symbols over the spoken word. Spectacle, music, sounds, and smells all combined to bring audience and performers together in an atmosphere of intense feeling.’’