The Slave Trade
Paula Fox, a modern author, sets her novel The Slave Dancer in 1840, taking place in New Orleans and aboard the slave ship The Moonlight. Through the perspective of Jessie, the protagonist, Fox vividly portrays this era. Although importing slaves from Africa was illegal, the trade persisted, and the sale of American-born slaves was openly accepted. A World Book article on this trade highlights that by the early 1800s, the southern United States was home to over 700,000 slaves, a number that grew to approximately four million by 1860. Despite Jessie's family's financial inability to own slaves, he observes them in the streets and in affluent households. It is commonly understood that anyone with financial means owns servants, and most jobs are either directly or indirectly tied to slave labor. Jessie initially does not question the morality of slavery; it simply seems a normal aspect of his world. The prevailing racist beliefs among whites, as Jessie observes, include the notion that "the least of them was better than any black alive."

The primary aim of the slave trade was profit, prompting some ship captains to cram as many individuals as possible onto their vessels, minimizing expenses. Others adopted a "loose packing" approach, taking fewer slaves and granting them more space, in hopes of reducing illness and death among them. (In the novel, Captain Cawthorne is referred to by his crew as "a tight packer.") Regardless of the method, slaves were always kept chained in the hold, except when brought on deck for exercise. The overcrowding and lack of sanitary conditions led to disease and death on all slave ships, whether tightly or loosely packed. The transatlantic slave trade, spanning from the 1500s to the mid-1800s, transported an estimated 10 million Africans from their homeland, though the exact number remains uncertain, according to the World Book.

The Underground Railroad
The Underground Railroad was neither a railroad nor underground. Instead, it was a network of individuals dedicated to helping enslaved people escape to freedom in the northern United States and Canada, where slavery was prohibited. These escapees typically traveled by night, on foot or by any means available, and sought refuge during the day in secret locations or in the homes and buildings of abolitionists. Since fleeing and aiding escapees was illegal in the South, those involved used coded language, often borrowed from the railroad industry, to conceal their activities. For instance, those who assisted the escapees were known as "conductors," and the safe havens were called "stations." In The Slave Dancer, Daniel and the two men assisting Ras in his escape are depicted as conductors. Due to the risky nature of their work, they worry that Jessie might reveal their identities.

The Underground Railroad was most active from 1830 to the 1860s, aiding thousands in their escape from slavery. While many reached the North, some were unfortunately captured by slave hunters and returned to the South. As a result, numerous individuals sought refuge in Canada, particularly in Ontario, where they found greater safety. In 1850, the U.S. Congress enacted a fugitive slave law, mandating the return of escaped slaves to captivity.

The most renowned conductor of the Underground Railroad was Harriet Tubman, who herself escaped slavery. Driven by a desire to help others, she ventured back to the South 19 times, aiding approximately 300 individuals in their quest for freedom.

Sailors' Hard Lives
As Fox highlights, it was not uncommon for men and boys to be "pressed," or forcibly taken, onto ships to serve as sailors, much like Jessie. Benjamin Stout shares, "I was pressed too, although when I was older than you, and for a much longer voyage than this will be." Taken against their will, these sailors were subjected to the harsh rule of captains who, like Cawthorne, resorted to violence and punishment to maintain order on their vessels. The life of a sailor was fraught with danger: death from disease and shipwreck was prevalent, and for those involved in the slave trade, there was also the risk of arrest by British or American authorities if caught.

The Slave Dancer takes readers through a variety of locations—New Orleans, West Africa, the Gulf of Mexico, and the ever-changing environment of a slave ship. In 1840, Jessie is abducted from his home in New Orleans and embarks on a journey to West Africa aboard the slave ship The Moonlight. On the way back, the ship is wrecked in the Gulf of Mexico, not far from New Orleans. Jessie and Ras, a young slave he befriends on the ship, find temporary refuge in Mississippi with Daniel, an elderly black man. After some time, Jessie returns to New Orleans on foot while Ras starts his journey to the North. Jessie then provides a brief overview of his life following these events—how he became an apothecary, relocated to Rhode Island, and fought for the Union Army during the Civil War.

Poetic Prose
"The distinction and beauty of the words she uses and her absolute command of subtlety and nuance in rhythms and sentence structure place Paula Fox above almost all other children's writers," Rees notes in his book. Other critics concur: Fox's skillful use of language has earned her the Newbery Medal, the Hans Christian Andersen Award, and acclaim in both the United States and England. Fox's prose is concise yet poetic, enriched with vivid imagery rooted in detailed physical descriptions, rhythm, and cadence. For instance, when Jessie is captured and transported by a small boat to the ship, Fox writes:

We passed a small island. I noticed the faint glow of a light in a window—just that lone, flickering yellow beacon. I felt helpless and sorrowful, as if everyone in the world had perished except for the three of us and the mysterious lamplighter on the shore. Then, as if daylight was emerging within the boat itself, I began to discern piles of rope, a wooden bucket, a heap of rusty netting, and the thick boots of my captors.

In passages like these, Fox skillfully contrasts accurately depicted emotions with precise details of place, time, and people, making both the events and emotions feel profoundly real.

Emotional Accuracy
Throughout the book, Fox depicts Jessie's complex emotions with remarkable clarity, even when they are startling in their intensity and negativity, or when they defy the reader's expectations. Shortly after his capture, Jessie feels a burst of happiness as the ship speeds ahead, and even he is taken aback by this. "When I remembered the wretchedness of my situation, I wondered if there was something about a ship that makes men glide from one state of mind to another as the ship cuts through water."

Later, compelled to perform for the slaves, forced to witness their suffering, he is shocked to find that he despises them—despises their shackled movements, their groaning, despises their suffering—and despises himself for feeling this way. Because the sailors have mistreated him, he projects his anger onto them, viewing them as the reason for his captivity on the ship. Although this mindset is fleeting and ends when Jessie himself is beaten, Fox does not hesitate to portray it. Like others in unbearable situations, Jessie learns to mentally escape: "I found a kind of freedom in my mind, I found how to be in another place." However, unlike Ned Grime, the deceitful carpenter, he cannot maintain this escape and is soon jolted back to reality and the awareness of his role in the slaves' torment.

When Jessie and Ras are rescued by Daniel, the escaped slave, Fox reveals Jessie's yearning to be as close to Daniel as Ras is, along with his understanding that, because he is white, Daniel will never trust him in the same way.

Long after the journey and throughout his life in Rhode Island, Jessie remains affected by the experience, much like anyone who has endured significant hardship. Although he appears similar to his neighbors on the outside, inside, he carries the memory of that brief voyage and can no longer find the same joy in music as he did in his childhood.

First Person
The narrative is presented in first-person, which is an excellent choice because it allows the reader to "hear" Jessie recounting his story, making it feel more vivid and authentic than if it were narrated in third-person. Similar to the captivating sea tales Purvis shares, readers are immersed in the story alongside Jessie as he describes the ship, the crew, the captives, and the dreadful events. By the book's conclusion, the reader has come to know Jessie intimately, as he has revealed every thought and emotion as openly as if he were in the same room, confessing the distressing story that has burdened him for much of his life.

The Slave Dancer is an exceptional historical novel that delves into intricate moral questions, making it worthy of examination for its stylistic and structural prowess. The narrative is abundant with dialogue and action, and the prose vividly engages the reader's senses. Even in brief segments, Fox captures the essence of the natural world enveloping her characters: "Everything except the dark smudge of shore was gray now, sky and water and dull clouds. It looked like rain .... Except for the mutter of Purvis' voice, I heard only the fluttering sound of water about the hull of the ship. A man passed me wearing a woolen cap, his gaze on the horizon." The novel explores emotions, thoughts, and moral complexities, all developed through tangible external events.

Jessie is profoundly affected by his journey on The Moonlight. As he recounts his experience in adulthood, he shares that he can no longer enjoy music: "At the sound of my instrument, a fiddle, a flute, a drum, a comb with paper wrapped around it played by my own child, I would leave instantly and shut myself away." Additionally, his psychological trauma seems to extend beyond just this aversion, as his writing style is formal and often uses unusual syntax. This manner of writing reflects Jessie's reserved nature and his cautious outlook on life after his harrowing ordeal on The Moonlight.

From a structural perspective, the plot progresses through specific actions leading to an unavoidable conclusion. Fox begins her novel with a section titled "History," where she lists the characters aboard The Moonlight and reveals the ship's fate. Interestingly, excluding Jessie, the officers and crew of The Moonlight number twelve, mirroring the typical size of a Greek tragedy Chorus. Traditionally, the Chorus expressed the community's views and opinions, and the playwright would interweave the main characters' struggles within this framework. In The Slave Dancer, the crew of The Moonlight embodies the voice of an oppressive and biased society. Jessie's quest for moral values unfolds against the backdrop of this corrupt yet privileged ensemble—a grotesque Chorus that would accept him, at least as a musician, simply because of his skin color. Like ancient Greek heroes, Jessie cannot fully escape the society that shaped him. He survives his ordeal on the slave ship only to return to the pre-Civil War South. He eventually moves to the North, witnessing his moral conflicts mirrored in the Civil War's turmoil, all while bearing the internal scars of his personal struggle.

The Slave Dancer has faced criticism for certain elements, such as the portrayal of passive slaves and the sudden conclusion of the story. Despite these critiques, the novel remains a significant work addressing the topic of slavery.

Set against a grim chapter in American history, Fox has meticulously portrayed the brutality of slavery. She does not revise history to fit modern societal norms, ensuring that characters reflect the era's attitudes and use offensive terms like "nigger." Fox's moral stance is evident throughout the book, as she aims to convey the devastating impact of slavery on the enslaved, the slaveholders, and the entire nation. In her Newbery Award acceptance speech, she expressed her viewpoint: "There are those who feel that slavery debased the enslaved. It is not so. Slavery engulfed whole peoples, swallowed up their lives, committed such offenses that in considering them the heart falters, the mind recoils. Slavery debased the enslavers, and self-imposed ignorance of slavery keeps the mind closed."

Due to the novel's historical authenticity and moral insight, it serves as a tool to highlight the civil rights advancements achieved in America since the 1840s. The Slave Dancer should remind readers that these advancements were the result of deliberate efforts.

1840s: In the southern United States, slavery is lawful, and African Americans are denied any rights.

Today: African Americans are legally guaranteed the same rights as all other citizens, although racism remains a challenge within American society.

1840s: Sailing from North America to Africa and back takes four months, and the voyage is fraught with danger.

Today: Air travel allows for a safe journey between North America and Africa in just a few hours.

1840s: Children are not legally required to attend school; instead, they are expected to work long hours to support their families.

Today: Child labor is prohibited, and all children are mandated to attend school.

1840s: The region surrounding New Orleans consists of forests, farms, and swamps. Jessie could walk for three days toward the city, encountering few people and minimal evidence of human settlement.

Today: Urban expansion and highway development have made untouched wilderness areas like those Jessie experiences increasingly uncommon, especially near major cities like New Orleans.

Baker, Augusta. "The Changing Image of the Black in Children's Literature." Horn Book 51 (February 1975): 84-87. This piece places The Slave Dancer within a broader framework.

"Paula Fox." Horn Book 50 (August 1974): 351-353. This article provides an introduction to Fox and her literary contributions.

Fox, Paula. "Newbery Award Acceptance." Horn Book 50 (August 1974): 345-350. In this article, the author talks about her writing process and inspiration for The Slave Dancer, addressing some of the criticisms the book has received.

Sources
Bach, Alice, Review in Horn Book, August 1974.

Bosmajian, Hamida, "Nightmares of History: The Outer Limits of Children's Literature," in Children's Literature Association Quarterly, Winter 1983, pp. 20—22.

Crossley-Holland, Kevin, Review in New Statesman, November 8, 1974.

Dixon, Bob, Catching Them Young: Sex, Race and Class in Children's Fiction, Pluto Press, 1977.

Mathis, Sharon Bell, "The Slave Dancer Is an Insult to Black Children," in Cultural Conformity in Books for Children: Further Readings in Racism, edited by Donnarae MacCann and Gloria Woodard, Scarecrow Press, 1977.

Rees, David, "The Colour of Saying," in The Marble in the Water: Essays on Contemporary Writers of Fiction for Children and Young Adults, in Horn Book, 1980, pp. 114-27.

Steinberg, Sybil, "Paula Fox: Writing for Two Genres, She Has Earned a Reputation for High Quality Novels and Books for Young People," Interview, in Publishers Weekly, April 6, 1990, p. 99.

Tate, Binne, "Racism and Distortion Pervade The Slave Dancer," in Cultural Conformity in Books for Children: Further Readings in Racism, edited by Donnarae MacCann and Gloria Woodard, Scarecrow Press, 1977.

Townsend, John Rowe, A Sense of Story: Essays on Contemporary Writers for Children, J. B. Lippincott, 1971.

----, A Sounding of Storytellers: New and Revised Essays on Contemporary Writers for Children, J. B. Lippincott, 1979, pp. 55-65.

For Further Study
Fox, Paula, "Some Thoughts on Imagination in Children's Literature," in Celebrating Children's Books: Essay on Children's Literature in Honor of Zena Sutherland, edited by Betsy Hearne and Marilyn Kaye, Lee and Shepard Books, 1981.
In this piece, Fox explores how literature can ignite the imagination of young readers.

Hamilton, Virginia, Her Stories, Scholastic, 1995.
Hamilton presents a collection of African-American folktales, fairy tales, and true stories. The book received the 1996 Coretta Scott King award.

Kingman, Lee, Newbery and Caldecott Winners, 1966-1975, Horn Book, 1975.
This work includes Fox's Newbery Medal acceptance speech, awarded for Slave Dancer.

Marcus, Leonard S., "An Interview with Phyllis J. Fogelman," in Horn Book, March, 1999, p. 148.
Editor Fogelman talks about young adult literature focusing on African Americans.

Myers, Walter, Now Is Your Time: The African-American Struggle for Freedom, HarperCollins Juvenile Books, 1992.
Myers narrates the history of African Americans through the stories of remarkable individuals.