the earlier goal of assimilation and sought to develop a racially distinct style. The writing from this era also became more openly political, often influenced by Marxist ideas about class inequality and economic exploitation. This shift was partly due to the widening economic gap between blacks and whites resulting from the Great Depression. By 1935, several talented young writers of the Renaissance had passed away, and many others had left Harlem.

The Great Depression

The Great Depression, triggered by the stock market crash of 1929, was a time of severe economic difficulty nationwide, with African Americans suffering disproportionately. Despite the artistic achievements and increased visibility of blacks during this period, they remained economically disadvantaged. In Harlem, for example, black families spent twice as much of their income on rent compared to white families in 1931, and by the end of 1932, nearly half of Harlem's population was unemployed. The median family income in Harlem plummeted about 44% between 1930 and 1932. Harlem artists relied heavily on the support of white patrons, publishers, audiences, and readers. As the economy faltered, financial support dwindled, and white interest in African-American art and culture waned.

Point of View and Irony

Hughes narrates Luther's encounters with the Carraways using a third-person perspective, which means the events in "Slave on the Block" are recounted by an external observer. This narrator is omniscient, possessing insight into the characters' inner thoughts. For instance, the narrator can reveal, "They didn't understand the vagaries of white folks, neither Luther nor Mattie, and they didn't want to be bothered trying." However, third-person narration typically presents facts and events objectively. For example, the narrator does not express opinions about the Carraways' view of Luther as "so charming and naive to ask right away for what he wanted" when he approaches them for employment, instead conveying the information neutrally. Nonetheless, Hughes does not aim for a neutral reaction from readers, as he has already shown that the Carraways stereotype all black people as charming and naive. This information highlights their reliance on stereotypes. When there is a disparity between what is shown and what is felt, irony emerges. Throughout the story, Hughes employs irony in his narration. He critiques the Carraways' racial attitudes and beliefs by depicting their limited perceptions of black people in a detached and factual manner, providing an incisive critique of their distinct form of racism. The story's ironic narration stands out as one of its most notable stylistic features. Hughes's use of irony reflects the influence of both modernist literature and traditional African and African-American storytelling.

Setting

When Hughes sets out to illustrate "the ways of white folks," he meticulously outlines the social context he addresses and the specific attitudes of a distinct time and place. The story begins by describing the Carraways' social milieu. They belong to a New York intellectual and artistic circle that admires black culture, resides in an exclusive and costly part of Greenwich Village, and visits upscale clubs and bars in Harlem that cater to white thrill-seekers.

Although the broader setting of a modern, segregated New York City is clearly defined, all the story's events occur within the Carraways' home. Their residence serves as the sole point of interaction between the Carraways and their domestic staff. Despite both enjoying Harlem's nightlife, it is noted that the Carraways prefer "the ritzy joints where Negroes couldn't go themselves" except for work or performance. The story's action begins with Luther's arrival at their doorstep and concludes with his departure. The plot unfolds through a series of tense interactions between the Carraways and Luther within the domestic environment.

Symbolism

Hughes intricately integrates symbolism into the fabric of a realistically depicted social environment. For instance, Anne's portrayal of Luther as a slave on the auction block aligns with her identity as an artist within the social milieu of Greenwich Village. Nevertheless, the painting carries deep symbolic weight. Through this symbol, Hughes implies that Luther's connection to the Carraways mirrors slavery, even though the Carraways perceive themselves as progressive and open-minded individuals who "love Negroes." Anne positions Luther on a pedestal in a manner reminiscent of how a slave trader would present a slave for sale. Her social standing empowers her to depict him as a slave, thereby contributing to the creation of stereotypes that oppress Luther within her household.

The roses Luther brings into the library on the day he confronts Mrs. Carraway also hold symbolic significance. The roses enhance the scene's visual effect. Bare-chested, Luther becomes a decorative element in the home, akin to the roses themselves. His sensual appearance is part of what unsettles Mrs. Carraway and part of what delights Anne. When Luther is dismissed, he instructs Anne to arrange the flowers in vases. To Luther, the roses signify labor. He hands the roses to Anne, which can be interpreted as a reversal of a romantic gesture. Thus, the roses symbolize Anne's misguided, romanticized perception of Luther.

Satire

In literature, satire involves using ridicule, humor, and wit to critique human nature and societal institutions. The Carraways, a white liberal couple, are clearly satirized in "Slave on the Block." They embody a type of patronizing, unintentionally offensive white supporter of black arts during the 1920s and 30s. While such individuals did exist, the Carraways are depicted almost as caricatures, with their unappealing traits exaggerated to highlight the story's themes. Similarly, the black characters lack depth; the reader gains little insight into their internal lives or private thoughts, although they are not depicted as harshly as the Carraways.

Hughes narrates Luther's interactions with the Carraways through a third-person perspective, meaning the story "Slave on the Block" is told from the viewpoint of an outside observer. This narrator is omniscient, able to delve into the characters' private thoughts. For instance, the narrator can reveal, "They didn't understand the vagaries of white folks, neither Luther nor Mattie, and they didn't want to be bothered trying." Typically, third-person narration presents facts and events objectively. For example, the narrator does not express any opinion on the Carraways thinking Luther was "so charming and naive to ask right away for what he wanted" when he sought work from them; instead, this detail is shared in a direct and neutral tone. However, Hughes does not intend for this information to generate an indifferent reaction, as it has been established that the Carraways stereotype all black people as charming and naive. Thus, this detail criticizes their reliance on stereotypes. When there is a discrepancy between what is presented and the underlying sentiment, the result is a sense of irony.

Throughout the narrative, Hughes employs a deeply ironic tone. He critiques the Carraways' racial attitudes and beliefs by depicting their limited views on black people in a detached and objective way, providing a sharp and clear portrayal of their specific kind of racism. The story's ironic narration stands out as its most notable stylistic element. Hughes's use of irony reflects influences from both modernist literature and traditional African and African-American storytelling.

When Hughes aims to define "the ways of white folks," he meticulously outlines the social environment he is addressing, focusing on the attitudes of a specific era and location. The story begins with a depiction of the type of white people the Carraways are. They belong to a New York intellectual and artistic circle that appreciates black culture, resides in a prestigious and costly part of Greenwich Village, and visits the upscale clubs and bars in Harlem that cater to white thrill-seekers.

Although the broader context of a modern, segregated New York City is clearly established, all of the story's events occur within the Carraways' home. Their residence is the sole place where they interact with their domestic staff. While both parties enjoy Harlem's nightlife, it is mentioned that the Carraways "favor the ritzy joints where Negroes couldn't go themselves" except to work and perform. The plot unfolds when Luther arrives at their door, and it concludes when he departs, with the narrative building on the tense series of interactions between the Carraways and Luther within their household.

Hughes intricately incorporates symbolism into the fabric of a realistically depicted social environment. For instance, Anne's painting of Luther as a slave on the auction block aligns with her role as an artist within the social milieu of Greenwich Village. Yet, the painting holds deep symbolic meaning. Through this artwork, Hughes suggests that Luther's connection to the Carraways mirrors slavery, even though the Carraways perceive themselves as open-minded liberals who "love Negroes." Anne positions Luther on a box similarly to how a slave trader would display a slave for sale. Her social standing allows her to portray him as a slave, thereby contributing to the stereotypes that oppress Luther within her home.

The roses Luther brings into the library on the day he confronts Mrs. Carraway also carry symbolic weight. These roses enhance the scene's visual impact. Luther, shirtless, becomes a decorative element in the household, much like the roses themselves. His sensual presence unsettles Mrs. Carraway, yet pleases Anne. When Luther is dismissed, he instructs Anne to arrange the flowers in vases. For Luther, the roses symbolize labor. He hands them to Anne, turning a romantic gesture on its head. Thus, the roses represent Anne's misguided, romanticized perception of Luther.

In literature, satire uses ridicule, humor, and wit to critique human nature and institutions. The Carraways, a white liberal couple, are clearly satirized in "Slave on the Block." They epitomize a type of patron—the unintentionally offensive white supporter of black arts during the 1920s and 1930s. Although such people did exist, the Carraways are depicted almost as caricatures, with their negative traits exaggerated to emphasize the story's themes. Similarly, the black characters lack depth: readers learn little about their inner lives or personal thoughts, although the Carraways are portrayed more harshly.

Langston Hughes, initially a successful blues poet, was inspired to write short stories after reading a collection by D. H. Lawrence. Similar to the British writer, Hughes used psychologically intense depictions of his fellow Americans, using irony and satire to highlight the racial dynamics between black and white communities.

1. Consider instances when you've encountered irony in casual settings, such as everyday conversations. What are the differences and similarities between the irony found in literature and that in informal speech? What makes irony so impactful? As an exercise, identify a topic you feel passionate about and try to convey your perspective using irony.

2. Many of Hughes's poems are rooted in blues rhythms and themes. He also incorporates song lyrics into "Slave on the Block." Listen to some blues music and research the history of this genre. How do the themes of blues music relate to the conflicts and issues Hughes addresses in his story?

3. Identify some white artists, writers, or musicians who draw inspiration from African-American culture, either from Hughes's era or today. With Hughes's critique of the Carraways in mind, examine the work of these artists in terms of their representation of black people and culture. Do you notice any similar stereotypes, such as exoticism, simplicity, or sexuality, as described in the story? What other insights about race relations can you gather from these artists' works?

4. Although Hughes is highly critical of the Carraways' racial attitudes in the story, he presents them as human, with their prejudice as a form of weakness. Explore psychological studies on prejudice and racism. What are the current theories, and which do you find most compelling or useful? Do any of these theories relate to the interpersonal dynamics in the story or offer a new understanding of the characters?

"Slave on the Block," a story by Langston Hughes, revolves around Michael and Anne Carraway, a well-intentioned yet condescending white couple, and their interactions with Luther, their young Black employee. Through sharp irony, Hughes explores the tension that emerges when the couple invites the young Black man into their home to serve as a muse for their artistic pursuits. He delves into the psychological dynamics between Black and white characters, critiquing the confines of a racially divided society and highlighting both subtle and blatant forms of racism.

The story "Slave on the Block" was initially published in Scribner's magazine in September 1933, when Hughes was 31 years old. It was later included in a short story collection titled The Ways of White Folks, released the following year. By this time, Hughes had already gained recognition as a key figure in the Harlem Renaissance, but The Ways of White Folks was his debut collection of short stories. Although he was primarily celebrated as a blues poet, Hughes dedicated much of his career to capturing the lives and voices of everyday urban Black individuals. However, The Ways of White Folks marks a brief shift in focus, examining the peculiar and contradictory racial attitudes of white people from a Black perspective.

Upon its release, The Ways of White Folks received positive reviews, particularly for its confident use of irony and deep insight into human psychology. Nonetheless, some critics perceived Hughes's depiction of white characters as biased. Since then, scholars have argued that Hughes's critical portrayal of whites signifies maturity and represents a significant advancement in African-American literature.

Like many African Americans of his era, Hughes was born in the South and eventually made his way to Harlem, a neighborhood in New York City. In New York, he encountered a group of white artistic and financial mentors who were intrigued by African-American culture. Their influence helped shape his views on "the ways of white folks," as depicted in the story.

The Harlem Renaissance emerged around 1917, coinciding with a significant influx of African Americans into New York City. Approximately two-thirds of the black population in New York resided in Harlem, which became a vibrant community and cultural hub, earning the nickname "the Negro capital of America." This demographic change sparked a new interest among white artists and intellectuals in black culture. New York's Greenwich Village became a haven for bohemian whites, akin to the Carraways, who were critical of mainstream society and viewed African Americans as a source of innocence and renewal. Harlem gained popularity as an entertainment destination for both blacks and whites, renowned for its clubs and cabarets. Notable black performers such as Bessie Smith and Paul Robeson, whose records the Carraways collected, graced Harlem's stages. Countee Cullen, whose manuscript the Carraways owned, was a prominent Harlem Renaissance poet. W. E. B. DuBois emerged as a black leader, while Carl Van Vechten was a white Renaissance writer and arts patron. During the early phase of the Harlem Renaissance, white artists captivated by black culture and eager to write about it played a dominant role.

Starting around 1923, a small, talented, and educated group of African Americans in Harlem began to gain prominence by publishing works that reflected their own experiences. Langston Hughes was among a cohort of writers who drew inspiration from black folk culture to craft exceptional art. These black artists viewed artistic success as a key avenue for African Americans to combat racism and secure civil rights in the United States. They received promotion and financial backing from a group of affluent and supportive whites. For several years, Hughes and some of his contemporaries were sponsored by an elderly white woman, Mrs. Osgood Mason, whom they affectionately called their "godmother."

The Harlem Renaissance concluded in 1935. During its final phase, young black artists became increasingly rebellious and critical of their white patrons, accusing them of perpetuating stereotypes. By the time Hughes penned "Slave on the Block," he had severed ties with Mrs. Mason. Many Harlem Renaissance writers, including Hughes, began to question the previous aim of assimilation, striving instead for a racially distinct artistic style. The writing of the Harlem Renaissance grew more overtly political, sometimes influenced by Marxist ideas of class division and economic exploitation. This shift was partly driven by the widening economic gap between blacks and whites due to the Great Depression. By 1935, several of the era's promising young writers had passed away, and many others had moved away from Harlem.

The Great Depression, which began with the 1929 stock market crash, was a time of severe economic difficulty nationwide, but it impacted African Americans more severely. Although there were notable artistic accomplishments and increased visibility for black individuals during this era, they remained economically disadvantaged. For instance, Harlem families spent twice as much of their income on rent as white families did in 1931. By the close of 1932, nearly half of Harlem's population was unemployed. From 1930 to 1932, the median family income in Harlem plummeted by roughly 44 percent. Artists in Harlem relied heavily on the backing of white patrons, publishers, audiences, and readers. As the economy worsened, financial support dwindled, and white interest in African-American art and culture waned.

1930s: The combination of racial violence by white mobs and the economic downturn in the southern United States, alongside better-paying industrial jobs in the north, prompts a significant movement of African-Americans to northern cities. This large-scale migration is known as The Great Migration.

1990s: The phenomenon of "white flight," which began in the 1970s, continues as many white residents leave cities for the suburbs. As a result, African-Americans become the majority in many urban areas. By this time, cities in both the southern and northern regions have become common destinations for African-Americans.

1930s: During the 1930s, racial segregation is legally enforced in public schools, transportation, and other public spaces across the South. A 1935 survey reveals a stark disparity in school funding, with an average of $17.04 allocated per black student compared to $49.30 for each white student. The NAACP initiates a series of legal challenges based on the Supreme Court's ruling that facilities can be separate as long as they are equal. These efforts eventually contribute to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. At this time, only about 5 percent of eligible black voters in the South are registered. Arthur W. Mitchell from Chicago becomes the first African American elected to the House of Representatives. Throughout the decade, there are 111 documented lynchings, prompting the introduction of anti-lynching legislation.

1990s: A study conducted by Harvard University indicates that racial segregation has increased to levels not seen since 1968, with 66 percent of African-American students attending predominantly minority schools. A historic number of 40 black members serve in the U.S. Congress. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court imposes restrictions on the 1965 Voting Rights Act.

1939: The film Gone with the Wind, depicting a white southern family's experiences during and after the Civil War, becomes a major success. Hattie McDaniel, who portrays a devoted slave and servant, makes history as the first African-American woman to win an Academy Award. Boxer Joe Louis claims the world championship title and, remaining undefeated until he retires in 1949, becomes a symbol of African-American strength and success.

1990s: Oprah Winfrey, a prominent television talk-show host, ranks among the top ten wealthiest entertainers in the United States. She is also the only African-American woman included in a national poll of the ten most admired women.

In Hughes's writing, readers can identify the impact of black oral traditions and African-American music. Initially, he faced criticism for incorporating African-American expressions, speech patterns, and dialects. However, over time, Hughes became recognized as a unique voice in black literature. He acknowledged the influence of Paul Lawrence Dunbar, Walt Whitman, and Carl Sandburg on his work.

Hughes also mentioned that he read the works of D. H. Lawrence, a British modernist whose writing significantly influenced him. Hughes appreciated Lawrence's daring, straightforward style of psychological analysis and social commentary. "The Lovely Lady," a story from Lawrence's The Collected Stories about a domineering elderly woman reminiscent of Hughes's mentor Mrs. Mason, directly inspired him to write The Ways of White Folks.

Hughes also authored several works focused on Harlem. His 1951 piece, Montage of a Dream Deferred, is a poetry collection that explores both the joys and sorrows of life in Harlem. Throughout this book, as in much of his poetry, Hughes incorporates the rhythmic and thematic elements of the African-American blues tradition. Always fascinated by people's perspectives, in 1961, Hughes published The Best of Simple, a collection of stories about Jesse B. Simple, an urban folk hero he created for a column in the Chicago Defender during the 1940s. These stories use oral storytelling techniques to deliver humorous, comic, and ironic tales about everyday individuals.

For those interested in the struggles faced by African-American women in the early 20th century, consider reading Quicksand and Passing (1929), a pair of novellas by Nella Larsen, another prominent Harlem Renaissance author. These stories focus on mixed-race characters grappling with their identities in a racially divided society. They explore the stereotypes that blacks and whites hold about one another, highlighting the unique experiences of women with race and racism.

Other books delve into the concept of role reversals between blacks and whites. George Schuyler's 1931 satirical novel, Black No More, examines America's fixation on skin color through the story of a young black man who turns white due to a scientific breakthrough, leading to unforeseen complications. Meanwhile, John Howard Griffin's Black Like Me (1960) is a nonfiction work where a white man changes his appearance to pass as black while traveling across the United States. This book offers a white perspective on the challenges of racism faced by blacks, providing a stark portrayal of race relations in America.

Sources

Anderson, Sherwood. A critique of The Ways of White Folks in The Nation, July 11, 1934. Reprinted in Langston Hughes: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and K. A. Appiah, New York, Amistad Books, 1993, p. 18.

DuBois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folks, New York, Bantam Books, 1989.

Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. Preface to Langston Hughes: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and K. A. Appiah, New York, Amistad Books, 1993, pp. ix-xii.

Graham, Maryemma. ‘‘The Practice of a Social Art,’’ in Langston Hughes: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and K. A. Appiah, New York, Amistad Books, 1993, pp. 213-236.

Ostrom, Hans. Langston Hughes: A Study of the Short Fiction, New York, Twayne Publishers, 1993.

Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes, Vol. 1, New York, Oxford University Press, 1986.

Further Reading

Anderson, Jervis. This Was Harlem. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1981.
An engaging narrative of Harlem during the Renaissance period, emphasizing the black entertainment industry.

Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea: An Autobiography. New York: Hill and Wang, 1940.
Hughes's own story of his early life as a writer, leading up to the creation of The Ways of White Folks.

Lewis, David Levering. When Harlem Was in Vogue. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.
An insightful and accessible exploration of the historical and cultural dynamics that fueled the Harlem Renaissance.

Ostrom, Hans. Langston Hughes: A Study of the Short Fiction. New York: Twayne, 1993.
Offers a detailed and insightful critical analysis of Hughes's short stories, along with a selection of contemporary reviews of his work.