During the Yule celebration, many knights and fair ladies gather in King Arthur’s banquet hall, there to feast and enjoy the holiday festivities. Suddenly a stranger enters the room. He is a giant, clad all in green armor, and with a green face, hair, and beard. He advances, gives his greetings, and then loudly issues his challenge. Is there a knight in the group who would dare to trade blows with the mighty Green Knight? He who accepts is to strike one blow with a battle-axe immediately. Then on New Year’s morning, a year hence, the Green Knight is to repay the blow, at his own castle in a distant land. Arrogantly, the Green Knight waits for an answer. From King Arthur’s ranks answers the voice of Sir Gawain, who accepts the challenge.

King Arthur and the other knights watch approvingly as Sir Gawain advances, axe in hand, to confront the Green Knight. The stranger kneels down, bares his neck, and waits for the blow. Sir Gawain strikes, sure and true, and the head of the Green Knight is severed from his body. While all gape in amazement, the Green Knight picks up his head in his hands, leaps upon his charger, and rides toward the gate. As he rides, the lips of the head shout defiance at Sir Gawain, reminding him of their forthcoming meeting at the Green Chapel in the coming new year.

The months pass quickly. Noble deeds are legion at the Round Table, and an atmosphere of gaiety pervades King Arthur’s castle. Then, when autumn comes, Sir Gawain departs on his promised quest, and with much concern the other knights see him set forth. Sir Gawain—riding his horse, Gringolet—goes northward and at last arrives in Wirral, a wild and uncivilized region. On his way he was often in danger of death, for he faced fire-puffing dragons, fierce animals, and savage wild men in his search for the Knight of the Green Chapel. At last, on Christmas Eve, Sir Gawain sees a great castle in the middle of the wilderness. He enters it and is made welcome.

His host, Lord Bertilak of Hautdesert Castle, offers Sir Gawain the entire facilities of the castle. In the beautifully furnished chamber that he occupies, Sir Gawain is served the finest dishes and the best wines. Lady Bertilak, a lady more beautiful even than Queen Guinevere, sits with him as he eats. The next day is Christmas, and Lord Bertilak leads in the feasting. Expressing the wish that Sir Gawain will remain at the castle for a long time, Bertilak assures the knight that the Green Chapel is only a short distance away, so it will not be necessary for him to leave until New Year’s Day. Bertilak also asks Sir Gawain to keep a covenant with him. During his stay, Sir Gawain is to receive all the game that Bertilak catches during the day’s hunt. In return, Sir Gawain is to exchange any gifts he receives at the castle while Bertilak is away.

On the first morning that Lord Bertilak hunts, Sir Gawain is awakened by Lady Bertilak. She enters his chamber, seats herself on his couch, and speaks words of love to him. Sir Gawain resists temptation and takes nothing from the lady. That evening, when Lord Bertilak presents his bounty from the hunt, Sir Gawain answers truthfully that he received nothing that day. The second morning the same thing happens. Sir Gawain remains chaste in spite of Lady Bertilak’s conduct. On the third morning, however, the day before Sir Gawain is to depart, she gives him an embroidered silk girdle, or sash, that she says will keep him safe from any mortal blow. Then she kisses him three times and departs. That evening Sir Gawain kisses Lord Bertilak three times, but he does not mention the silken girdle he received.

On New Year’s morning, Sir Gawain sets forth from the castle and rides to the Green Chapel. He finds it without difficulty; as he approaches he hears the Green Knight sharpening his axe. When Sir Gawain announces that he is ready for the blow and bares his head, the Green Knight raises his axe high in the air in preparation for the stroke of death. Sir Gawain first involuntarily jumps aside as the axe descends. The second time, the Green Knight merely strikes at Sir Gawain, not touching him at all. With the third blow he wounds Sir Gawain in the neck, drawing a great deal of blood. Then Sir Gawain shouts that he fulfilled the covenant. The Green Knight laughs loudly at that and begins to praise Sir Gawain’s courage.

To Sir Gawain’s surprise, the Green Knight reveals himself as Lord Bertilak and explains the blows. On the first two blows Sir Gawain escaped injury because for two days he faithfully kept the covenant. The third drew blood, however, because Sir Gawain failed to reveal the gift to Lord Bertilak. Together with Morgan le Fay, King Arthur’s half-sister, the Green Knight planned this whole affair to test the strength and valor of King Arthur’s knights. They devised the disguise of the Green Knight and persuaded Lady Bertilak to try tempting Sir Gawain. Sir Gawain withstands the test of temptation well; his only fault is the keeping of the girdle. The host forgives him for his act, however, because it is the love of life that motivated Sir Gawain.

The two men return to the castle, and Sir Gawain journeys back to King Arthur’s court. As he rides he gazes with shame at the girdle. It is to remain with Sir Gawain as a reminder of the moment when he yielded and succumbed to the weakness of the flesh. At King Arthur’s castle all the knights and ladies listen to the tale of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and then, to show their love for the young knight, they all don silk girdles. This symbol becomes a traditional part of the costume of the Knights of the Round Table.

Camelot

Camelot is the site of King Arthur’s court. As the poem begins, attractive young lords and ladies celebrate the Christmas season at Camelot. Dressed in their best, the courtiers frolic in a charming atmosphere. Laughter and mirth prevail while a lovely Guinevere and a boyish Arthur sit on an attractive raised platform. The poem hints that the court, despite its superficial attractiveness, may be naïve and untried.

The Wirral

The Wirral is a forest in Cheshire, England, that Gawain enters from northern Wales during his quest through the wilderness. The weather is cold, and the woods are dark and full of wild men, giants, and monsters. The Wirral may symbolize the forces of nature as opposed to the civilized atmosphere of Camelot and Bertilak’s castle. The geographical closeness of castles and the forests surrounding them suggests that civilization is fragile and that the primitive forces of the forests are always ready to destroy what human beings have built.

Castle Hautdesert

Castle Hautdesert is the home of Lord Bertilak de Hautdesert, the good-humored nobleman who is Gawain’s host and who is disguised as the Green Knight by the arts of Morgan le Fay. Like Arthur’s court, Bertilak’s castle is a pleasant place. From a distance, its white silhouette looks as if it were cut from paper. The castle and its moat are set on a hill, near the Green Chapel. Gawain’s private bedroom and luxurious bed emphasize that the castle is one of the finest of its era. However, the poet contrasts this luxury with Bertilak’s hunt in the forest. By graphically describing the death and disemboweling of the deer, the boar, and the fox, the poet creates a realistic picture of the brutality of a medieval hunt.

The Green Chapel

The Green Chapel is the mound-like chapel of the Green Knight, which Gawain approaches on New Year’s Day. The frightening-looking chapel stands in a wasteland; it is hollowed out, like a cave, and symbolic. It seems to connect with the tree worship of the pre-Christian Celts. On one hand, the castle seems like a tomb; on the other hand, because it is a chapel it reminds medieval readers that Christ left his cave-tomb and entered into everlasting life. Like many of the places described in the poem, the Green Chapel is rich with ambiguity.

The study of contemporary literature primarily involves gathering and interpreting information about the authors. For instance, it is nearly impossible to fully appreciate Byron without considering the author's persona and mystique. However, we do not even know the identity of the author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, often referred to as “the Gawain poet.”

While this might seem like a limitation, it does not necessarily impede our appreciation. We also know very little about Homer or Dante, yet this doesn't stop us from recognizing them as some of the greatest poets in history. From one perspective, our limited knowledge about them and the Gawain poet could actually be beneficial, as it allows more room for imagination.

We should certainly utilize the knowledge that is available to us. Many people find enjoyment in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight with minimal or no understanding of the author's era. However, a deeper appreciation requires some understanding of the historical context. This understanding helps us to see the poem not just as an enchanting fantasy but as part of a richer tradition.

Only one copy of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight has survived from the Middle Ages. This manuscript also includes three other poems: Pearl, Patience, and Purity. These works are written in the dialect of the northwest Midlands, an area in England now known as Lancaster and Yorkshire. The similarities in language, imagery, and theme, coupled with a high level of artistry, have led most scholars to believe they were written by the same author. Pearl is a lament for the death of the author’s daughter, while Patience recounts the biblical story of Jonah and the whale. Purity is a religious meditation that retells several stories from the Old Testament. All are considered some of the most significant works of medieval literature. A fifth poem, St. Erkenwald, is sometimes attributed to the same writer. Although he was evidently educated in both religious lore and courtly manners, almost all our knowledge of him comes from his works.

The Middle Ages has been alternately celebrated as a period of romance and simple faith and criticized as a time of superstition and ignorance. Perhaps more than any other historical period, it evokes strong emotions. This is due to its stark contrasts: opulent pageantry and squalor, joy and despair, compassion and cruelty, asceticism and extravagant sensuality. All popular images of the period contain elements of truth, yet none are entirely complete.

The ethic of the nobility during the Middle Ages is referred to as chivalry. This set of customs aimed to reconcile the virtues of a warrior society with the principles of Christianity. The ethos of pagan warriors emphasized physical bravery and loyalty to one's tribe and lord, valuing fierceness in battle while often disregarding restraining influences, including pity. In contrast, Christianity promoted the ideal of universal love.

Chivalry preserved the martial virtues of pagan warriors but applied them to different ideals. It continued to highly value loyalty and courage but rejected blood-lust, selfishness, and uncontrolled sexuality. The Christian warrior, or knight, was expected to be gentle and refined in his domestic life.

A central aspect of chivalric culture was the concept of “courtly love.” Before the Middle Ages, Western literature contained few accounts of idealized lovers. Love between the sexes was considered a questionable passion, deemed far less noble than love for one’s companions or country. This perspective changed dramatically around the start of the eleventh century when the Provencal poets of Southern France began to celebrate erotic love. This new focus quickly spread to Germany and then throughout Europe, becoming a major theme in lyric poetry and a foundation for chivalric epics.

Ideas about love varied widely, just as they do today. Often, a knight would choose to fight in jousting tournaments or on the battlefield in the name of a lady whose favor he desired. He was not expected to seek physical intimacy or expensive gifts in return but might receive a token from the lady, such as a sash or a detachable sleeve from her dress. He would then carry this token into battle, sometimes using it as a banner to adorn his lance.

It was common for a knight to serve the wife of another man. Since aristocratic marriages were largely political, love was often found outside of marriage. As long as the love remained purely spiritual, the husband was unlikely to object. However, in practice, this type of service could easily lead to adultery. In Mallory’s Mort D’Arthur, the downfall of the famed Round Table occurs when Lancelot, once the greatest of the knights, has an affair with Queen Guinevere, King Arthur’s wife.

The chivalric ideal of love relied on a very delicate emotional balance. While courtly love may have been an important civilizing force, it also had the potential to incite violence. It was surrounded by various elaborate conventions designed to keep erotic passions under reasonable control.

By the late fourteenth century, when the Gawain poet was writing, the era of chivalry was nearing its conclusion. A particularly severe outbreak of bubonic plague from 1347 to 1350 had decimated about a third of Europe's population, undermining confidence in traditional ways. Additionally, new weapons such as longbows, cannons, and muskets were making traditional warfare, along with most knightly customs, obsolete.

As chivalry faded into history, it began to appear more appealing. The mythical court of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, in particular, became enveloped in growing nostalgia. The chivalric knight gradually transformed into the English gentleman.

Even in contemporary culture, traces of chivalry remain evident. The cowboy is a modern iteration of the knight on a quest for adventure. Similarly, soap operas, with their focus on power and infidelity, owe much to chivalric romances.

Most literature revolves around human beings in various ways. Medieval literature often highlighted the relationship between humanity and God. During the Renaissance, the focus shifted to interactions among people within society. Later, the Romantic movement of the nineteenth century and the environmental movement of the twentieth century shifted the emphasis once more, this time to the relationship between humans and the natural world.

The Renaissance shift in focus resulted from the gradual secularization that accompanied the rise of science and industry. The subsequent emphasis on nature is linked to the same process. As humans altered more of the earth by clearing forests, draining swamps, and building settlements, they began to feel an increasing nostalgia for the untouched landscapes being lost.

These are broad generalizations, and the most compelling works from all periods often explore all three relationships: the hero's interactions with divine powers, society, and nature. This is certainly true for Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The poem features many vibrant descriptions of landscapes, which not only set the story's mood but are also included for their aesthetic beauty.

Many of these descriptions emphasize the changing seasons. The yearly cycle, celebrated in the liturgical calendar, provides a framework for the poem. Human life is compared to the year, which begins with life stirring beneath the snow and progresses through stages of maturity to an eventual end.

The forces of nature are often embodied in the characters of the Green Knight, who also takes on the identity of Sir Bertilak, and Morgan le Fay, who also appears as Lady Bertilak. The Green Knight represents the essence of the forest. Initially, he is completely green, including his skin, resembling vegetation. Later, as Lord Bertilak, his color changes, similar to how leaves transform in autumn. He also exhibits nature's mysterious regenerative abilities. Like a tree that has lost a branch or even its top, he continues to live unbothered.

Morgan le Fay is referred to as a “goddess” by the Green Knight. Including such a character signifies a form of pagan revival. This prefigures the Renaissance, which had long been established in Italy but was just beginning to influence England when Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was written. Gawain voices the sentiments of some of his peers when he encounters the Green Knight in a barren area near a fairy mound and wonders if he is confronting a devil.

Despite this, both the Green Knight and Morgan le Fay appear to be as devout in their Christianity as Arthur and his court. They celebrate Mass at their home in Hautdesert Castle. Although opinions about them may vary, they both show a sense of fairness and are reasonably benevolent.

The ambivalence of the Green Knight and Morgan le Fay mirrors the conflicting attitudes people have toward the natural world. The landscapes in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight are often beautiful but also harsh. In his quest for the Green Chapel, Gawain not only faces attacks from wild beasts but also endures cold and sleet.

For medieval aristocrats, the clash between humanity and nature was most vividly and thrillingly experienced in the hunt. It served as both a form of war training and a significant social event, where castle inhabitants bonded through an exhilarating shared activity. Women participated alongside men, each with a defined role and a corresponding share of the game. The tales of the hunt would later be recounted around the fire during long winter nights. Only animals like boars and deer, known for their speed or ferocity, were deemed worthy of being hunted by a lord.

This confrontation could be thrilling, even if it was inherently unequal. However, the forests were no wilder than those of today. The Gawain poet, foreshadowing Romantics like Tennyson, delights in evoking the terror of primeval landscapes. One of the best examples is this passage:

By a mountain the next morning, Gawain makes his way
Into a wild and fearsome forest fastness;
Hundreds of ancient, massive oaks together.
Hazel and hawthorn were intertwined,
Covered with rough, ragged moss hanging down,
With many birds, unblithe, perched on bare twigs,
Chirping pitifully from the cold's pain.
(Borroff trans., part 2, lines 740–747).

Although this description is impressive, it is unlikely that such primeval forests existed in Britain when the Gawain poet was writing. Even if they did, they couldn't have housed any large castles, as people needed vast amounts of wood for construction and winter heating. In recent years, as nature writing has gained popularity, scholars have scrutinized it more closely. They have found that the idea of untouched, primal nature has often been a poetic fantasy. Such natural environments had generally disappeared even in prehistoric times.

The aristocratic hunting preserves of medieval Europe might have appeared very wild, but this was a carefully crafted illusion. They were maintained by foresters who wanted them to look dark and dangerous, enhancing the hunters' experience of confronting nature. In a sense, they were not entirely unlike today's theme parks.

By the time the Romans conquered Britain around the end of the first century CE, there were almost no virgin forests. The original inhabitants had mostly cut or burned down the woodlands. By the early Middle Ages, a managed forest known as the “coppice” had become a hub of economic and social activity in traditional village life. This was an area where trees were cut off just above the height of a tall man when they were relatively young. This caused many small branches to grow in all directions, forming a sort of tent or canopy. It provided a pleasant, natural shelter.

Farmers would bring livestock there to feed on nuts and acorns. Markets were held there. The coppice also provided many thin sticks of wood that could be used as staves. The coppice often resembled a gothic church with branches acting as buttresses. It may have even inspired the idea of the Green Chapel in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

This aspect of traditional British life ended in some areas when William of Normandy conquered Britain in 1066. He wanted to greatly expand the royal game preserves. In some cases, he even destroyed buildings and entire villages to make way for the forests. These forests sometimes became a refuge for political dissidents, the most famous of whom is the legendary Robin Hood.

However, British forests were somewhat untamed in at least one way. Mapping them accurately was extremely challenging. Without the widespread use of a compass, which didn't become common until the end of the Middle Ages, navigating these forests was also very difficult. Knights seeking adventure might venture into the forest, never knowing in advance whom or what they might encounter. Gawain, for instance, sets off into the forest to find the Green Knight, relying solely on providence, without a map or clear direction.

In conclusion, the relationship between humans and the natural world is one of our most pressing issues in the late twentieth century. Since nature has long been shaped by human activity, understanding it separately from history is impossible. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight would make an excellent book to bring on a camping trip. As you gaze up from the fire, you might imagine Castle Hautdesert hidden somewhere among the trees.

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