Historical Context
Ellison’s journey through life, alongside the two transformative decades in which Shadow and Act took shape, unfolded during a crucial epoch in American history—one teeming with upheaval and dynamic shifts. Emerging into a world just fifty years removed from the Civil War's end, Ellison was surrounded by the lingering echoes of its aftermath. In the Southern states, the oppressive Jim Crow laws were staunchly upheld, perpetuating a rigid division between black and white citizens. The abolition of slavery had dealt a severe economic blow to the South, leading to widespread destitution. As the 20th century dawned, a surge in Northern industrial activity beckoned, prompting a significant migration of Southern black communities to bustling urban centers in the North.
The consequences of this migration were diverse and far-reaching. For one, the 1920s stood out as a vibrant era of cultural exploration, during which African-American culture gained prominence and appreciation. This burgeoning national spirit, coupled with a growing sense of altruism and philanthropy among affluent white Northerners, gave rise to the renowned Harlem Renaissance—a golden age of African-American artistic and literary brilliance. Conversely, this movement disrupted longstanding Southern family ties, leaving many African Americans adrift without the support of kin, and the influx of labor into the North eventually led to unemployment and economic hardship. Two pivotal events began to forge a path towards better civil rights for African Americans: the Great Depression, ignited by the catastrophic stock market crash of 1929, which plunged both blacks and whites into poverty; and the onset of World War II in 1939, concluding in 1945. Throughout the 1930s, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration initiated federally funded employment programs like the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which opened job opportunities to black workers. In 1937, due to relentless efforts by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Hugo Black became the first African-American appointed to the United States Supreme Court. World War II heightened demands to desegregate the armed services, culminating in President Harry Truman's decisive action in 1948.
What we now call the civil rights movement, or the black freedom movement, ignited in 1954 with the Supreme Court’s landmark verdict in Brown v. the Board of Education, which deemed racial segregation in schools unconstitutional. The following year, 1955, witnessed the historic Montgomery bus boycott in Alabama, ultimately leading to the desegregation of public buses in 1956. By 1957, Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. ascended to the presidency of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, an organization devoted to the nonviolent protests and boycotts that defined the late 1950s and early 1960s. In August 1963, the March on Washington took place, where Dr. King delivered his iconic ‘‘I Have A Dream’’ speech. This momentous march significantly influenced the introduction of a new civil rights bill by President John F. Kennedy, later brought to fruition following his assassination by his successor, President Lyndon B. Johnson. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 famously outlawed all forms of racial discrimination.
Style and Technique
Point of View
A significant portion of the works featured in Shadow and Act are sourced from forward-thinking, leftist publications like New Challenge, which is linked with labor and communist parties. Additionally, some selections are interviews and articles crafted for literary journals or outlets that cater to a sophisticated and cultured readership. Consequently, many writings adopt a first or third-person perspective, often with a didactic flair. They maintain a direct and clear tone, presuming the reader is both informed and educated. The audience is expected to have an interest in, and familiarity with, fundamental civil rights topics, as well as popular music, literature, and cultural discussions. Ellison points out that despite his novel Invisible...
(This entire section contains 325 words.)
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Man winning the National Book Award, at the time of the interview, most African Americans remain unaware of him. This highlights that although Ellison himself is African American, his ongoing discourse about racial dynamics in America doesn’t necessarily resonate within the popular black subculture or the broader mainstream.
Allusion
Ellison masterfully situates racial issues within the tapestry of American culture by weaving in references to the works of other authors. In certain essays, notably ‘‘Twentieth-Century Fiction and the Black Mask of Humanity,’’ he critiques writers like Twain, Hemingway, and Faulkner for rendering African Americans as incomplete characters, mere shadows of humanity. Yet, in the evolution of his career, he also comes to appreciate facets of these authors' literary contributions. In ‘‘The World and the Jug,’’ for instance, he even reveres them as his "literary ancestors," whose artistic heights he aspires to reach. Ellison's feelings toward his contemporary, Richard Wright, are equally layered. In ‘‘Richard Wright’s Blues,’’ he praises Wright for effectively confronting white America with the stark realities faced by African Americans, but in other critiques, he argues that Wright compromises literary quality for ideological purposes. These allusions not only underpin Ellison’s cultural observations but also propel his ideas forward, providing a benchmark for his own literary endeavors.
Compare and Contrast
1939: A Call for Change in Military Policy
As World War II erupts, African Americans raise their voices, demanding the desegregation of the U.S. military. Though they are permitted to enlist, their roles are confined to non-combat and support duties. Nevertheless, small victories emerge during the conflict; notably, amidst fierce debate, black aviators begin their training at Tuskegee University to join the fight.
Today: A Unified Force
Since 1948, the U.S. military has stood as a fully integrated institution, erasing the racial barriers of the past.
1949: Stereotypes in Cinema
Films like Intruder in the Dust and Home of the Brave showcase African Americans in secondary roles, often reduced to mere caricatures.
Today: Stars in the Spotlight
Today, African American actors such as Denzel Washington not only headline blockbuster films but also deliver performances that earn them the coveted Academy Award.
1950s: The Fight for Educational Equality
The landmark Supreme Court case, Brown v. Board of Education, declares racial segregation in schools unconstitutional. However, the backlash is fierce, with groups like the White Citizens Council striving to maintain the status quo of segregated schooling.
Today: A New Landscape
Every school across the United States reflects the racial diversity of its community, yet challenges persist. Schools in economically disadvantaged areas, often with a high minority population, struggle with overcrowding and inadequate resources.
1950s: A Tragic Injustice
The brutal murder of a fourteen-year-old boy in Mississippi, accused of flirting with a white woman, captures national attention and outrage.
Today: A Continuing Struggle
While such heinous acts of hatred are less frequent, they tragically endure. The 1998 murder of James Byrd Jr., an African-American dragged to death by three white men in Texas, serves as a haunting reminder of the work yet to be done.
Bibliography
Sources
Bigsby, C. W. E., ‘‘Improvising America: Ralph Ellison and the Paradox of Form,’’ in Speaking for You: The Vision of Ralph Ellison, edited by Kimberly W. Benston, Howard University Press, 1987, p. 137.
Elliot, George P., ‘‘Portrait of a Man on His Own,’’ in New York Times Book Review, October 25, 1964.
Staples, Brent, ‘‘Indivisible Man,’’ in New York Times Book Review, May 12, 1996.
Wright, John, ‘‘Slipping the Yoke,’’ in Speaking for You: The Vision of Ralph Ellison, edited by Kimberly W. Benston, Howard University Press, 1987, p. 65.
Further Reading
Bloom, Harold, Ralph Ellison, Modern Critical Views series, Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. Bloom’s text is a collection of critical essays on Ellison’s fiction and non-fiction.
Butler, Robert J., The Critical Response to Ralph Ellison, Greenwood Press, 2000. This work is a collection of critical essays on Ellison’s work that were published since the release of his posthumously published work.
Nadel, Alan, Invisible Criticism: Ralph Ellison and the American Canon, University of Iowa Press, 1988. Nadel offers a collection of essays addressing Ellison’s ambivalent relationship to other prominent American authors, including Mark Twain, Ernest Hemingway, and William Faulkner.
Woodward, C. Vann, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, Oxford University Press, 1966. Woodward’s book is the definitive work detailing the relationship between the civil rights movement and the decades of segregation that preceded it.
