Places Discussed
*Thebes
*Thebes (theebz). Largest city in the ancient Greek region of Boeotia. In Greek mythology, Thebes is a central location in tales of Oedipus, Antigone, Pentheus, and Teiresias and is particularly important as a location of meetings connecting mortals and the gods. Thebes had unusual connections with the East, as its founder, Cadmus, was believed to have come from Phoenicia. In drama, Thebes is often marked by archetypal conflicts between gods and humans, young and older generations, brothers, and, most notably, between self and other, inside and outside.
Throughout Seven Against Thebes, Thebes is presented as a ship buffeted by a storm at sea, despite its actual physical distance from the sea. Eteocles strives to retain control of the ship of state but ultimately fails in the face of more powerful forces. As in most plays by Athenian poets, such as Aeschylus, the city of Thebes is on many levels a substitute for Athens, and the drama presents issues of philosophical and intellectual concern to citizens of the Athenian democracy.
*Agora
*Agora. Greek term for a city’s central business and meeting area. The agora of Thebes is the place where King Eteocles plans the defense of his city and explains his actions to the citizens. In this play, the agora is the site of battle-planning, an unusual activity for a place normally associated with ordinary business matters.
*Seven Gates
*Seven Gates. Entrances to Thebes. In ancient culture, the number seven had ritual and religious significance and the seven gates of Thebes represent the portals to power. It is only when Eteocles and Polyneices clash at the seventh gate that the royal House of Laius finally falls. The gates are like holes in the ship of state, as more are opened, the doom of Eteocles and his city is assured.
Historical Context
Theater played a crucial role in Greek society, offering audiences valuable insights into morality and the roles of the gods. Aeschylus wrote during the High Classical Period, a time when Greek city-states thrived despite the ever-present threat of war. The Persian Wars, occurring in 490 B.C. and 480 B.C., were significant events during Aeschylus's lifetime, and he personally participated in these battles. Athens's triumph over a much larger Persian force was pivotal, especially their naval victory, which inspired Aeschylus's work. While many plays were rooted in ancient myths exploring human and divine conflicts, theater was so integral to Athenian culture that the state funded actors' salaries. Wealthy patrons covered additional costs, such as production and sustenance for the cast and crew. Although government officials ensured order, attending theater was considered a serious civic duty. Naturally, the plays were also highly entertaining, and the rivalry among playwrights added to the excitement.
Theater originated in Athens at religious festivals, which eventually incorporated public drama competitions. These contests took place outdoors in vast amphitheaters, with the Dionysus festival's venue accommodating 17,000 spectators. As the largest and most prestigious competition, three playwrights were selected to present a total of twelve plays. Playwrights, actors, and choruses competed for prizes. Women participated only as viewers, while boys portrayed female roles and men wrote the plays. Initially, theater consisted of choruses singing hymns or narrative songs. Over time, the first actor emerged, masked and engaging in dialogue with the chorus. Aeschylus introduced a second actor, allowing for more intricate storytelling. Choruses, made up of six to twelve young men in long robes and matching masks, joined the actors. The two actors donned different masks and often elaborate costumes, including platform shoes to appear taller and more imposing. Costumes were adorned to sometimes indicate the character's social status...
(This entire section contains 563 words.)
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or role. Play sources included past or recent wars, Homeric epics, and tales of gods' interactions with humanity. Themes frequently highlighted the gods' power and cunning, as well as human responses to fate or the futility of dreams against divine will. The story of Oedipus and his sons illustrates how a single mistake with a god can lead to catastrophe for future generations.
In the ancient eastern Mediterranean world, plagues and famines were common challenges. Lacking a true understanding of weather patterns and geological activities, people often attributed these calamities to the gods. The early Greeks believed that the gods were behind weather catastrophes, disease outbreaks, and volcanic eruptions, interpreting these events as divine punishment. They envisioned a structured universe where their fate and prosperity were dictated by the gods. When faced with major disasters, the Greeks often reflected on their behavior, the one aspect they could control, for explanation and resolution. In the myth of Oedipus, Laius's defiance of the gods warranted punishment, which was unsurprisingly extended to his descendants. This acceptance of divine retribution is evident in Eteocles's acceptance of his impending death, deemed a suitable punishment by the gods. The fact that Eteocles was not even born when his grandfather was cursed was irrelevant to the audience. The perceived injustice of his death did not concern them. This was the norm in Greek society. Everyone in the audience would be familiar with such narrative cycles and keenly aware that their survival hinged on appeasing the gods. Eteocles is seen as fulfilling his duty and embracing a destiny predetermined before his birth.
Literary Style
Audience
The audience refers to the people for whom a drama is performed. Authors typically write with a specific audience in mind. Aeschylus, for instance, writes for an audience interested in drama as entertainment, but also for those who expect the playwright to impart important life lessons. Aeschylus sees the imparting of moral lessons as a crucial role for the dramatist, and thus he emphasizes significant teachings in his plays. These plays convey lessons about honor, destiny, hatred, and confronting death.
Character
A character is an individual portrayed in a dramatic work. The characters' actions form the narrative of the story. The concept of character can also encompass an individual's moral compass. Characters may range from simple, stereotypical figures to complex, multifaceted personalities. They can be defined by traits, such as the rogue or the damsel in distress. "Characterization" is the process of crafting a lifelike person from an author's imagination. To achieve this, the author assigns personality traits that determine the character's identity and behavior in specific situations. In the plays, characters bear names that reflect their roles. For example, Polyneices means "full of strife," indicating his role in the story.
Chorus
In ancient Greek drama, the chorus was a group of actors who interpreted and commented on the play's action and themes, often through singing or chanting. Initially, the chorus played a significant role, as seen in Seven Against Thebes, but over time, its function diminished, becoming merely a commentary between acts. Modern theater rarely incorporates a chorus.
Drama
Drama is commonly defined as any work intended for stage performance. It includes a story, actors portraying characters, and action. Historically, drama has encompassed tragedy, comedy, religious pageants, and spectacle. In contemporary terms, drama explores serious themes and topics but does not reach the same level as tragedy. Seven Against Thebes is a classic Greek drama that imparts important lessons about men's relationships with the gods.
Genre
Genre is a French word meaning "kind" or "type." It can refer to the category of literature, such as tragedy, comedy, epic, poetry, or pastoral, and also include modern forms like novels or short stories. Additionally, it can denote types of literature like mystery, science fiction, comedy, or romance. Seven Against Thebes is classified as a Greek tragedy.
Plot
The term "plot" refers to the sequence of events in a story. Typically, plots have a beginning, a middle, and an end, although sometimes they can be a series of interconnected episodes. The plot gives the author a way to delve into key themes. Students often mix up plots and themes; however, themes explore concepts, while plots simply outline what occurs in a straightforward way. For example, the plot of the story is the battle for Thebes, culminating in the deaths of two brothers. On the other hand, the theme involves how fate, destiny, and the gods' will must come to pass.
Setting
The setting refers to the time, place, and culture where the play's action unfolds. It can include geographic location, physical or mental environments, dominant cultural beliefs, or the historical period of the action. The main setting for this story is the battle for Thebes. The events take place within the city as Eteocles prepares for the looming assault.
Compare and Contrast
c. 467 B.C.: The Greeks achieve a decisive victory over the Persians, successfully repelling the invasion of their homeland. Despite being outnumbered by the Persian forces, the triumph fills the Greeks with great pride.
Today: Since the end of World War II, Greece has experienced a series of military coups and ongoing tensions with Turkey, and it is no longer seen as a dominant military power.
c. 467 B.C.: The renowned Greek poet Pindar relocates to Thebes, where he writes lyric odes celebrating victories at the Olympic Games.
Today: Modern athletes are also celebrated for their achievements, but the focus often shifts towards lucrative advertising and endorsement deals, which bring them substantial wealth. Rarely are poems written in their honor.
c. 467 B.C.: Alfalfa is cultivated by the Greeks, having been introduced to this grain by the Persians, and it is used to feed their livestock.
Today: Grain remains a strategic resource in times of conflict. Although the United States spent many years striving for military and economic superiority over the Russians, once victory seemed certain, the U.S. began exporting wheat to Russia to help alleviate their poor harvests.
c. 467 B.C.: The playwright Sophocles emerges as a formidable rival to Aeschylus, competing fiercely for the annual drama prizes at the Dionysus festival. These coveted awards lead to a prolonged rivalry between the two dramatists as they vie to produce the finest plays.
Today: The tradition of drama competitions endures, with prestigious awards for film and theater highly sought after each spring. Winners of the Best Film at the Academy Awards or the Best Play at the Critic Circle Awards gain recognition and financial benefits that facilitate future productions.
Media Adaptations
There aren't any specific movie adaptations of Seven Against Thebes. Nonetheless, the play plays a significant part in the 1998 Italian film Rehearsal For War, directed by Mario Martone. This film, set against the backdrop of the Yugoslavian war, uses rehearsals of Aeschylus’s tragedy to highlight the real-life tragedy occurring on the streets outside the theater.
The Oresteia is a film adaptation of Aeschylus’s trilogy, presented across three videocassettes with a total runtime of 230 minutes. Directed by Peter Hall for the National Theatre of Great Britain, this production was created by Channel 4 in 1990, with the original performance dating back to 1983.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Conacher, D. J., Aeschylus: The Earlier Plays and Related Studies, University of Toronto Press, 1996.
Davidson, John, review of ‘‘Aeschylus’s Septem,’’ in Didaskalia Vol. 4, No. 1, Spring, 1997.
Martin, Tomas R., Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times, Yale University Press, 1996.
Slavitt, David R., and Palmer Bovie, Aeschylus, 2, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.
Zeitlin, Froma L., ‘‘Language, Structure, and the Son of Oedipus,’’ in Under the Sign of the Shield: Semiotics and Aeschylus’s ‘‘Seven Against Thebes,’’ Edizioni dell’Atenceo, 1982, pp. 13-52.
Further Reading
Ashby, Clifford, Classical Greek Theater: New Views of an Old Subject, University of Iowa Press, 1999. This book explores Greek theater through the lens of architectural findings. The author has extensively traveled to study many of the remaining theater sites in Greece, Southern Italy, and the Balkans.
Bovie, Palmer, and Frederick Raphael, eds., Sophocles, 1: ‘‘Ajax,’’ ‘‘Women of Trachis,’’ ‘‘Electra,’’ ‘‘Philoctetes,’’ University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998. This collection offers new and engaging translations of several Sophoclean tragedies. The Penn Greek Drama Series aims to make these Greek plays accessible to all readers through fresh translations.
Gressler, Thomas H., Greek Theater in the 1980s, McFarland & Company, 1989. This work examines the state of theater in modern Greece, focusing on how social and cultural factors influence it. It also delves into the history of theater and the restoration of ancient theater sites.
Griffith, R. Drew, The Theater of Apollo: Divine Justice and Sophocles’s ‘‘Oedipus the King,’’ McGill Queens University Press, 1996. This analysis reinterprets Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex by emphasizing Apollo's role in the tragedy. It also attempts to recreate how the play was originally staged.
Rehm, Rush, Greek Tragic Theater, Routledge, 1994. This book is a valuable resource for readers interested in understanding the mechanics of Greek tragedy. The author examines performances of various plays and encourages readers to consider the historical context in which they were originally performed.
Walton, J. Michael, Living Greek Theater, Greenwood, 1987. This book focuses on the staging and performance aspects of Greek theater. The author seeks to bridge classical and modern theater while providing detailed information on several major plays from the era.
Wise, Jennifer, Dionysus Writes: The Invention of Theater in Ancient Greece, Cornell University Press, 1998. This author explores the intersection of literature and theater by analyzing how the emerging literary world influenced drama. The text also offers insights into the impact of oral traditions on theater.
Zelenak, Michael X., Gender and Politics in Greek Tragedy, Peter Lang, 1998. This book provides insights into the role of women in Greek culture and theater, offering intriguing analyses of many female characters from Greek dramas.