Form and Content
Sense and Sensibility is Jane Austen’s first published novel. It grew out of the sketch “Elinor and Marianne,” which was written in the 1790’s and was revised several times before its publication in 1811. The novel is written in the form of a comedy of manners, and in it the author satirizes the lifestyle of her characters with much humor and irony. Although it has a happy ending, Sense and Sensibility contains Jane Austen’s usual hardheadedness, which makes her fiction powerfully realistic and timeless.
The plot centers on Mrs. Henry Dashwood and her three daughters. Not much is said of Margaret, the youngest daughter. Elinor’s and Marianne’s trials as eligible young ladies are the focus of the story. Their mother, Mrs. Dashwood, has been left without much of an income, for her husband Henry has had only a life interest in his estate, which means that his wife must vacate it in favor of the new heir, her stepson, John Dashwood. On his deathbed, Henry Dashwood has made his son John promise to provide for Henry’s wife and three daughters. Unfortunately, John’s avaricious and insensitive wife, Fanny, convinces him that he has very little obligation to Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters, and that they can do well on their very small income. Consequently, Mrs. Dashwood has little choice but to accept the kind offer from a relative of a cottage in Devonshire, to which she moves with her three daughters.
It is difficult for Elinor to leave her family home, since she has fallen in love with the circumspect Edward Ferrars. He is a peculiar suitor, subdued and tentative, but Elinor appreciates his mild manner and modesty, and she is willing to have their courtship proceed at an even, if extremely slow, pace. Elinor understands that Edward’s mother will probably oppose his marrying Elinor because Elinor does not have the great wealth or position that Edward’s mother seeks in a bride for her son. To Marianne, this is provoking. Why should Elinor be content with such a hesitant lover? Why should she make excuses for Edward when Marianne attacks his want of spontaneity? To Marianne, he seems neither intense nor determined enough to seek Elinor’s hand. She cannot understand why Edward is not forthright and why Elinor does not lose patience with him. Elinor finds, however, that Edward’s quiet, sober demeanor is attractive; it indicates his seriousness and steadiness. She seems to sense that he feels more than he can say and that he is deliberately checking himself for reasons he cannot disclose or that he is behaving in accordance with his shy and retiring nature.
Marianne adapts quickly to Devonshire, where she begins to receive the attentions of the flamboyant John Willoughby. He seems to be everything that Edward Ferrars is not. Willoughby is Marianne’s constant, entertaining companion, solicitous of her every mood. They become inseparable, and their friends and neighbors assume they are to be married, even though no engagement is announced, but Willoughby abruptly leaves Marianne and the Dashwood household, saying nothing about when he will return and leaving Marianne upset.
Marianne has spurned Elinor’s advice to be prudent. Elinor believes that Marianne should not give her heart to Willoughby until he has made an outright declaration of his intentions. Marianne, however, accuses Elinor of coldness and criticizes the behavior of their new friend, Colonel Brandon, who has fallen in love with her, but who represents precisely the sort of staid manner that Marianne rejects. Colonel Brandon is several years older than Marianne, and, like Edward Ferrars, he seems to be entirely too cautious.
Elinor tries to caution Marianne even as she suffers anguish over the puzzling behavior of the uneasy Edward Ferrars, for he has not visited her at the Dashwoods’ new cottage. Because of his long absence, Elinor begins to doubt his intention to marry her, even though she is still convinced that he loves her. Elinor receives another blow when Lucy Steele confides to her that she is secretly engaged to Edward. Lucy shares her news with Elinor in a taunting fashion designed to inflict the maximum amount of damage on Elinor’s hopes. Neither woman, however, openly acknowledges that this is what Lucy is doing. Refusing to be provoked by Lucy, who suspects Edward of an attachment to Elinor, Elinor calmly, if painfully, negotiates the hazards of both Marianne’s and her own affair, hiding her heartache from her sister and the rest of the family.
The lives of both Elinor and Marianne seem devastated when Willoughby drops Marianne and marries a wealthy woman, and when Edward’s secret engagement to Lucy is revealed to his mother by Lucy’s sister. All seems spoiled as Marianne falls victim to a dreadful fever and seems to be about to succumb to a wasting disease. She rallies, however, and gradually gathers strength by realizing how foolish she has been to ignore the obvious signs of Willoughby’s perfidy and Elinor’s patient, wise counsel. Still, Elinor’s own lives seems to be blighted when a servant announces the marriage of Edward and Lucy. This turns out to be a false alarm, however, for Edward appears to make an even more startling announcement. Lucy has married his younger brother Robert, leaving Edward free to marry Elinor.
Marianne slowly recovers, bolstered by Elinor’s report that Willoughby has visited to confess that he did actually love Marianne but foolishly abandoned her because he could not overcome a life of dissipated habits. She now realizes that she could never have been happy with him, and she accepts the suit of Colonel Brandon, who has acted as her family’s benefactor throughout their long ordeal.
Places Discussed
Barton cottage
Barton cottage. Home of Mrs. Dashwood and her three daughters, near Barton Park in Devonshire, three days’ journey from London in southwest England, that is under the control of a distant relative. Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters move into the cottage after her stepson, John Dashwood, marries and his new wife makes it clear that they are no longer welcome in the home that she now manages. The women make the cottage comfortable and are resigned to the social gaucheries of Sir John Middleton and his mother-in-law, Mrs. Jennings, who apparently are to be their main social resources.
The novel’s central romantic entanglements are introduced at the cottage, where the daughters begin receiving gentleman callers who represent prospective husbands. One caller, Edward Ferrars, who gives Elinor hope that her affection for him may be returned, is partial toward the cottage because he prefers the seclusion and quiet of country life to the social bustle of London. Eventually the two older daughters find happiness with the lovers of their choice.
Norland Park
Norland Park. Sussex home of the widowed Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters that is inherited by her stepson, John Dashwood. Mrs. Dashwood fondly remembers it as her former home, Marianne remembers it for its elegance, and Elinor remembers it as the place where she and Edward became fond of each other.
Berkeley Street
Berkeley Street. Exclusive London neighborhood where Elinor and Marianne are the guests of Mrs. Jennings, Lady Middleton’s mother, for an extended winter visit. At a party there, Marianne is stunned by the appearance of her former lover, Willoughby, and his efforts to snub her.
Cleveland
Cleveland. Somersetshire home of Mr. and Mrs. Palmer, Mrs. Jennings’s other daughter, that serves as a convenient stopover for Elinor and Marianne on their return from London to Barton Cottage. Here, primarily from self-neglect, Marianne contracts an infectious fever, giving Colonel Brandon the chance to serve her by going after her mother. A drunken Willoughby appears, having heard that Marianne is dying, to beg her forgiveness for his marrying for money and to insist that he loves only her. Marianne recovers and comes to appreciate Colonel Brandon’s devotion.
Context
Jane Austen is the first great female English novelist and has been acknowledged as such in countless articles and books. An avid reader, she built on the tradition created by Samuel Richardson (1689-1761), whose novels Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1747-1748) focus on female characters with their own distinct problems and sensibilities, and also on the work of earlier female novelists such as Fanny Burney (1752-1840), who perfected the novel of manners. Jane Austen went beyond these authors, however, in giving her female characters a new level of maturity and self-awareness. They are sharper and shrewder, more prone to criticize society even as they uphold its basic values.
Jane Austen’s style has been the model for countless writers, male and female. In recent years, her complex vision of society has been increasingly appreciated. Her earliest critics thought of her as modest, a miniaturist of society who did not deal with the large issues that concern male novelists such as Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), William Thackeray (1811-1863), or Charles Dickens (1812-1870). This view, however, has been challenged by later critics, many of them female, who see her as being much more actively involved with broader social issues—even if the social contexts of her novels seem narrow. Her recent biographers have abetted this critical trend, showing how acute Austen could be on the issues of her day and how political her sensibility and style actually are.
Historical Context
Social Classes in the English Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries
Jane Austen belonged to the professional class. Men in this class were expected to enter professions such as the army, navy, clergy, law, or medicine. Women, however, were barred from these careers and were expected to marry. Elinor and Marianne exemplify young women from the professional class. In Sense and Sensibility, they interact with and marry into the landed gentry, a higher social class. This social integration and upward mobility are central themes in many of Austen's works.
Members of the landed gentry led largely idle lives, sustaining themselves on the income from their estates. For leisure, men typically hunted while women gathered in the parlor. They resided in country estates, far removed from the squalor of London, and were unaffected by the economic difficulties stemming from the war with France. To prevent the family wealth from being excessively divided, the principle of primogeniture was followed: the eldest son inherited the bulk of the estate, while younger sons had to join the professional class and earn their livelihood. Although Colonel Brandon is not the eldest son, he assumes the position after his brother's early death. When Mrs. Ferrars discovers that her eldest son, Edward, plans to marry a woman of lower social standing, she disinherits him in favor of her younger, frivolous son, Robert.
Austen seldom features aristocratic characters in her writings, and the lower social classes are usually mentioned only in passing. A notable exception is Eliza Williams, the unfortunate woman seduced by Willoughby. Otherwise, the lower classes are represented by servants, who play minor roles in the narrative.
The French Revolution
The political and social upheaval in France significantly impacted England. War was declared on France in 1793, leading to economic hardship and sacrifices among the lower classes. Ivor Brown notes that "the poverty of the masses was aggravated by the long struggle with France and the scarcity of food inevitable in wartime." The landed gentry, however, remained largely unaffected, continuing their leisurely lives on country estates. Officers were typically chosen from the professional class.
The war with France and other conflicts are not mentioned in Sense and Sensibility. Although the novel is set in a specific period, Late Georgian and early Regency England, its characters and plot are devoid of political references. However, despite the absence of explicit mentions of the French Revolution, critics like Marilyn Butler argue that Marianne's "Sensibility" implicitly critiques the individualistic, revolutionary philosophy of the time. Butler, in "Sensibility and Jacobinism" (Jacobins being the most radical French revolutionaries), writes that...
Austen's interpretation of 'sensibility'—which translates to individualism or self-worship in various familiar forms—is addressed just as harshly here as in any anti-Jacobin tradition. Even without the dramatic political subplot typical of many anti-Jacobin novels, Mrs. Ferrars's London clearly depicts the chaos that ensues when self-indulgence becomes the only value. Particularly in the opening chapters, where Marianne is heavily criticized, 'sensibility' signifies sentimental (or revolutionary) idealism, which Elinor confronts with her skeptical or pessimistic perspective on human nature.
Contemporaries of Austen
Austen lived during a celebrated era of English poetry, marked by the rise of romantics like John Keats and Lord Byron. Percy Bysshe Shelley was also a contemporary, although his work gained recognition only posthumously. The poetry of these authors came to epitomize the romantic movement. While it had not yet fully formed as a movement in Austen's time, elements of its philosophy, including Shelley's anarchism, are critiqued through the portrayal of Marianne's "sensibility."
The Position of Women
Women in Jane Austen's social class were prohibited from working, significantly limiting their economic independence. Social independence was also restricted; women could not travel alone or visit men who were not relatives without a chaperone. Much of Sense and Sensibility, along with Austen's other novels, revolves around household and parlor life—subjects she knew well due to her lack of economic or social freedom to explore beyond the home.
In the early nineteenth century, when Austen was writing, it was rare for women to be authors, and society largely disapproved of it. Austen faced significant challenges in getting Sense and Sensibility published (it was her first novel to be printed). The initial printing was funded by her brother, and the author was listed as "A Lady." Despite the novel's success and the warm reception of her subsequent works, Austen's identity remained a secret from the public. Claire Tomalin, in her biography, quotes Austen to illustrate her anxiety about public recognition: "To be pointed at... to be suspected of literary airs—to be shunned, as literary women are... I would sooner exhibit as a rope dancer." Austen preferred anonymity over gaining a "reputation."
Religion
Austen, like most of her contemporaries, was a member of the Church of England, the Anglican Church. Its theology is a blend of Roman Catholicism and non-Calvinist Protestantism. Members of Austen's social class, the professional class, and the landed gentry often benefited from conferred positions and patronage connections. After Edward Ferrars is disinherited by his mother, he plans to "take orders." Subsequently, Brandon, a member of the landed gentry, offers him a rectory. Positions within the church hierarchy were frequently based on personal connections rather than religious convictions.
Literary Style
Original Conception and the Didactic Genre
Sense and Sensibility was initially conceived as an epistolary novel, meaning it was structured as a series of letters exchanged between characters. Austen likely drew inspiration from Samuel Richardson, a writer she admired during her upbringing, known for his heroine-focused domestic stories. However, at some stage in her writing process, Austen abandoned the epistolary format and instead developed what would become a didactic novel, a genre that gained popularity in the 1790s. Critic Marilyn Butler notes: "The didactic novel which compares the beliefs and conduct of two protagonists—with the object of finding one invariably right and the other invariably wrong—seems to have been particularly fashionable during the years 1795-1796." Viewed through this lens, Austen's first published novel, even down to its title's duality, exemplifies the didactic novel. In fact, it is so emblematic that critics often dismiss it as formulaic when compared to Austen's later, more sophisticated works. Butler claims that Sense and Sensibility is "unremittingly didactic," adding, "All the novelists who choose the contrast format do so in order to make an explicit ideological point."
Presentation of Dichotomous Ideologies
Austen's duality centers on contrasting Elinor's sense with Marianne's sensibility. This contrast extends far beyond the simple definitions of the words; the sisters embody opposing philosophies and ideologies. Critics have long debated the precise meanings behind Elinor's sense and Marianne's sensibility. Some suggest that Elinor's sense represents modest Christian values and a conservative disposition. On the other hand, Austen's depiction of Marianne is often interpreted as a critique of certain contemporary literary and political ideologies. The most apparent targets in Marianne's negative portrayal are romanticism and the self-centered philosophy of the French revolutionaries. Similar to German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's portrayal in The Sorrows of Young Werther, Austen presents a character with a fragile, romantic outlook who destabilizes by rigidly adhering to its principles. In this context, Marianne's overly sensitive and passionate nature is a critique of the self-centered aspects of romanticism (although it may not have been intentional, as romanticism was still an emerging and loosely defined movement, it certainly highlights the flaws of the developing trend), especially when juxtaposed with Elinor's classical demeanor. Elinor's conduct also hints at the shortcomings of Jean Jacques Rousseau's individualistic philosophy, which significantly influenced the French Revolution.
Butler believes that Austen eventually became disinterested in the didactic nature of her work. The novel progresses according to a strict formula: the heroines are courted and then jilted by men who represent their respective philosophies. However, later in the novel, after the sisters have joined Mrs. Jennings in London, Austen's narrative skills begin to break free from the constraints of the didactic genre. She starts presenting events with more ambiguity, and minor characters like Lucy Steele become increasingly significant, especially after Marianne, who is heartbroken and hysterical, is taken out of the central storyline. The inherent assumption in the didactic genre that one philosophy is correct while the other is wrong is softened by Austen's decision to let Marianne live. Butler notes, "it is remarkable how the harsh outlines of the ideological scheme are softened. Often the changes are small ones, such as turning the jilted heroine's near-obligatory decline and death into a feverish cold caught, plausibly, from staying out to mope in the rain." In summary, Austen's abundant talent and precise observations are too expansive to be confined by the chosen formula. Critics argue that this work appears more restricted and limited than her later writings, which were not bound by this genre choice.
Narrative Voice
To illustrate the contrasting ideologies, Austen uses a third-person narrative technique; the narrator does not participate in the action. However, the narrator's tone closely aligns with Elinor's beliefs and values. Elinor is consistently depicted in a positive light, while Marianne's actions are shown unfavorably. Thus, although the narrative is in the third person, it is not entirely neutral. There is a critical quality to this narrative voice that, while advocating for moderation and diplomacy, is quick to describe greedy, vacuous, and insipid minor characters in harsh, unflattering terms. A glance at the descriptions of Mrs. John Dashwood (Fanny), Mrs. Ferrars, Lady Middleton, or Robert Ferrars reveals that the narrator often does not practice the restraint she advocates.
Language
John F. Burrows states, "Jane Austen's letters make it clear that she and her family were keenly interested in the niceties of usage and amused by solecisms [grammatical mistakes] of every kind." Austen takes pleasure in presenting Lucy Steele's dialogue verbatim, filled with grammatical errors that hint at her low social status and lack of education. However, despite this exception, dialogue is not a crucial element of the work. As Butler explains, "the heroine is not so much in doubt about the nature of external truth, as concerned with the knowledge of herself, her passions, and her duty." Sense and Sensibility is an introspective novel that does not need to rely on dialogue to convey Elinor and the narrator's beliefs.
Compare and Contrast
1800s: Women from Jane Austen's social class, including the Dashwood sisters, are prohibited from working. They rely on advantageous marriages or the generosity of male relatives for financial stability, with virtually no economic independence.
Today: Although women still encounter workplace discrimination, such as unequal pay, they have the freedom to pursue any profession and can be found in leadership positions in both business and government sectors.
1800s: In addition to economic restrictions, women are also limited in their social freedoms. Traveling alone even short distances is forbidden, and unmarried women must avoid unchaperoned interactions with men who are not relatives to protect their reputations and marriage prospects.
Today: Due to economic independence, women can purchase property, live alone, travel freely, and move about without worrying about their reputations.
1800s: During Austen's time, English society is distinctly divided between the working class and the upper-class, landed gentry.
Today: Industrial advancements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have led to economic changes, resulting in a significant middle class in Western countries like the United States and Britain.
1800s: Undertaking serious artistic endeavors, such as writing, is uncommon and discouraged for women. Jane Austen, despite her positive reception, remains anonymous until her death to avoid the potential scandal of being a female novelist.
Today: Although women still strive for equal recognition in the arts, they are now acknowledged as significant contributors to literature. For instance, despite most Nobel Prizes for Literature being awarded to men, women like Toni Morrison (1993) and Wislawa Szymborska (1996) have gained recognition.
1800s: Protecting an unmarried woman's chastity is crucial for securing a suitable marriage. Women like Miss Eliza Williams in Sense and Sensibility, who become pregnant out of wedlock, face a life of shame and economic struggle, along with their children.
Today: With the development and acceptance of various birth control methods, women now have independent control over their sexuality. Additionally, more women are choosing to have children outside of marriage.
Media Adaptations
Sense and Sensibility made its television debut in 1985. This adaptation featured Irene Richards and Tracey Childs.
In 1995, Columbia/Tri Star Studios released a film adaptation directed by Ang Lee. The movie starred Emma Thompson, who also penned the Oscar-winning screenplay, alongside Hugh Grant and Kate Winslet.
There have been several abridged audio recordings of the novel, with a notable version narrated by Kate Winslet and produced by Highbridge.
An unabridged audio version, spanning 900 minutes and narrated by Jill Masters, is available from Blackstone Audiobooks.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Brown, Ivor, Jane Austen and Her World, Henry Z. Walck, 1966.
Burrows, John, "Style," in The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, edited by Edward Copeland, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 170-88.
Butler, Marilyn, "Sensibility and Jacobinism," in Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice, by Jane Austen, edited by Robert Clark, St. Martin's Press, 1994, pp. 38-52.
Clark, Robert, "Introduction: Closing (with) Jane Austen," in Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice, by Jane Austen, edited by Robert Clark, St. Martin's Press, 1994, pp. 1-25.
Handley, Graham, Criticism in Focus: Jane Austen, Bristol Classical Press, 1992.
Poovey, Mary, "Ideological Contradictions and the Consolations of Form," in Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice, by Jane Austen, edited by Robert Clark, St. Martin's Press, 1994, pp. 83-100.
Tomlin, Claire, Jane Austen: A Life, Alfred A. Knopf, 1997, p. 217.
Further Reading
Armstrong, Isobel, Jane Austen: "Sense and Sensibility,"
Penguin Group, 1994.
Armstrong offers a thorough critique and analysis of Sense and
Sensibility, delving into the novel's social themes and the characters'
philosophical perspectives.
Gilbert, Sandra, and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic, New
Haven, 1979.
Gilbert and Gubar, prominent feminist literary theorists, highlight the
psychological struggles faced by women writers throughout English literary
history due to their societal marginalization in this influential work.
Harding, D. W., Regulated Hatred and Other Essays on Jane Austen,
edited by Monica Lawlor, Althone Press, 1998.
Harding, a notable twentieth-century literary critic, regarded Austen as one of
his favorite authors. This collection, written over sixty years, explores
various facets of Austen's work, from its historical setting to the psychology
of her characters.
Jenkins, Elizabeth, Jane Austen, Farrar, Straus and Cudahy,
1949.
Jenkins provides a foundational biography of Jane Austen.
Monaghan, David, ed., Jane Austen in a Social Context, Macmillan
Press, 1981.
This essay collection examines the social context of Austen's time and how it
is reflected in her writing.
Neill, Edward, The Politics of Jane Austen, St. Martin's Press,
1999.
This modern compilation of essays on Austen's major works argues that Austen
was a nuanced political writer.
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