Selected Essays, 1917-1932

by T. S. Eliot

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Dante Alighieri

Born in 1265, Dante Alighieri stands as a towering figure among medieval poets, celebrated for his profound contributions to literature. His magnum opus, "The Divine Comedy," penned in the vernacular of Florence, Italy, remains a towering blend of Catholic theology and poetic artistry. Earlier in his career, he fashioned "Vita Nuova," a narrative unveiling his idealized youthful affection for Beatrice, a woman from Florence. T.S. Eliot hailed Dante as the most "universal" of poets, attributing this to the "peculiar lucidity"—a transparent yet striking beauty—of his poetry and his deeply rooted philosophical insights, influenced by the unified cultural beliefs stemming from St. Thomas Aquinas. Exiled from his native Florence in 1301 due to turbulent political strife within the Guelph family, Dante's legacy endures.

St. Thomas Aquinas

Regarded as the preeminent religious philosopher of medieval Europe, St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) achieved an intellectual revolution by harmonizing Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, particularly through his influential "Summa Theologica." His intellectual framework profoundly impacted Dante Alighieri and the broader landscape of medieval thought.

William Archer

William Archer (1856-1924) emerged as a pivotal critic, championing the view that contemporary drama was far more suited to the stage than its predecessors and deserving of frequent performance. Eliot engages in a spirited debate with this perspective in section VII.

Matthew Arnold

In the heart of Victorian England, Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) stood as a leading critic and staunch advocate for "culture," particularly in the realms of arts and literature. A champion of "disinterested criticism," he promoted a standard of critique detached from subjective biases. Although not typically regarded as irreverent, Arnold emphasized the significance of biblical study. Eliot, however, contends, especially in section VII, that Arnold derives morality from culture rather than religion. Alongside his critical writings, Arnold's poetry played a vital role in shaping the literary tastes of his era.

Irving Babbitt

Irving Babbitt (1865-1933), Eliot's mentor at Harvard, left a lasting imprint on Eliot's philosophical outlook. Babbitt, recognized as the progenitor of American "new humanism," resisted the prevailing self-expressionist and romantic ideologies of his time. Instead, he advocated a return to classical thought through the study of traditional literary works.

Bishop Lancelot Andrewes

Bishop Lancelot Andrewes (1555-1626) held numerous significant roles within the Anglican Church from 1589 to 1626. Eliot rekindled interest in this venerable scholar and linguist, whose sermons, laden with complex classical references, remain inaccessible to many. Eliot lauded Andrewes as "second to none in the history of the formation of the English Church."

Charles-Pierre Baudelaire

Charles-Pierre Baudelaire (1821-1867), a French poet, critic, and translator, captivated audiences with his emotive and, at times, provocative lyrical poetry. In the bustling heart of Paris, his tumultuous youth was marked by liaisons with prostitutes, imprisonment, and substantial debts. In the initial essay of section VII, Eliot examines Baudelaire's philosophical leanings and formal tendencies, suggesting an underlying Christian essence despite the blasphemous tones in some of his works.

William Blake

William Blake (1757-1827), a luminary of the romantic era, was both a poet and an artist, defying traditional education by immersing himself in self-directed learning under his mother's guidance until he became an engraver. Crafting his poetic creations into intricately designed plates, "Songs of Innocence and of Experience" remains among his earliest and most renowned works. He continued to forge poetic landscapes imbued with mythological worlds and unique philosophical musings.

Francis Herbert Bradley

Eliot dedicated his doctoral thesis to the English philosopher Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924), who delved into ethics, logic, and metaphysics. In section VII, Eliot explores Bradley's moral philosophy, its intertwining with religion, and its perceived superiority over Matthew Arnold's philosophical stance.

Bishop John...

(This entire section contains 1728 words.)

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Bramhall

Bishop John Bramhall (1594-1663), a British-Irish theologian, significantly enhanced the financial standing of the Irish church. He authored various treatises supporting Royalist and Anglican perspectives.

Wilkie Collins

Wilkie Collins (1824–1889), a celebrated Victorian novelist, was renowned for his mastery of suspenseful storytelling. Collaborating with Dickens on numerous plays and narratives, he experienced a decline in influence when he ventured into social commentary. During the 1860s, Collins was acclaimed as the premier craftsman of "sensation fiction," captivating readers with melodramatic and engrossing mysteries.

Charles Dickens

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) left an indelible mark as a Victorian novelist, editor, and social critic. Like Wilkie Collins, though with a more enduring legacy as a remarkably gifted novelist, Dickens skillfully wielded suspense and drama in his serialized stories. Set against the backdrop of Victorian society, his novels frequently depicted the dire circumstances of the impoverished.

John Dryden

John Dryden (1631-1700), a multifaceted poet, playwright, and critic of the English Restoration, frequently shifted his modes of expression and his perspectives on historical and literary events. Despite this, nearly all his works are deemed significant contributions to English literature. He pioneered the tradition of satirical verse and possessed an unmatched mastery of language. Eliot addresses Dryden's waning popularity, attributing it more to the nature of his subjects than to the quality of his writing.

Euripides

Ancient Greek dramatist Euripides (c. 480–406 B.C.) was a trailblazer in dramatic form, celebrated for his adeptness at portraying gods and heroes as authentic, relatable figures within his tragedies. Eliot evaluates various translations of Euripides' works, advocating for fresher and more refined versions.

John Ford

John Ford (c. 1586-1640) crafted plays and poetry steeped in moral paradoxes. Eliot offers a critical view, noting Ford's "absence of purpose" despite his distinctive style.

Ben Jonson

Ben Jonson (1572-1637), poet, critic, and playwright, is celebrated more for his profound influence on his contemporaries than for his own body of work. Leading the "Sons of Ben," a cadre of writers seeking deeper meaning through language, Jonson's individual poems and plays are esteemed for their quality. Eliot endeavors to rekindle interest in Jonson's plays, asserting that while they possess an "intellectual surface," they are nonetheless uniquely engaging in form.

Lloyd (1870-1922) dazzled audiences as a celebrated actress and singer in London, earning the affectionate titles "Our Marie" and "The Queen of the Music Hall" from her legion of admirers.

Christopher Marlowe

Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) carved his legacy as a playwright and poet, possibly entangled in the clandestine world of Elizabeth I's secret service. He remains renowned for his dramatic and transformative plays, which he penned before his untimely demise in a London tavern. His bold and rebellious protagonists paired with his mastery of blank verse left an indelible mark on English drama. Eliot delves into Marlowe’s texts, examining the profound and intricate impact his works had on the playwrights that followed.

Andrew Marvell

Andrew Marvell (1621-1678) stood among the ‘‘metaphysical poets,’’ a label introduced by Ben Jonson to describe 17th-century poets who wove intricate and lengthy metaphors into their work—though Eliot debates the utility of this characterization. Besides crafting poetry rich in ambiguity and subtlety, Marvell held various political roles before and after the Restoration of Charles II. In section V, Eliot commends Marvell's "wit," yet argues that he falls short of the distinctive flair found in poets like Dryden.

Philip Massinger

The question of authorship shrouds many of Philip Massinger's (1583-1640) works, as it does for several of his contemporaries. Nonetheless, his prowess with language and knack for satire shine through in the plays credited to his name.

Thomas Middleton

Thomas Middleton (1580-1627) was a realist playwright, known for presenting human interactions without the veil of sentimentality. Eliot observes Middleton's blunt portrayal of relationships without passing judgment. He partnered with others on numerous plays and is believed to have contributed to certain Shakespearean works, including Macbeth.

John Middleton Murry

John Middleton Murry (1889-1957) emerged as a modernist critic. Eliot scrutinizes Murry's reliance on the "inner voice" of criticism, deeming it an unreliable, flimsy, and insubstantial foundation for critical analysis.

Walter Pater

A prominent Victorian critic, Walter Pater (1839-1894) championed the aesthetic movement, famous for its motto ‘‘art for art's sake.’’ Known for his exquisite prose, Pater maintained that art could only be truly appreciated subjectively by each individual. Eliot critiques Pater's literary theories, which starkly contrast with his own, claiming they lack enduring moral and philosophical grounding.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca

Born in Corduba, Spain (modern-day Cordoba), Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4-65 A.D.) was a Roman philosopher and dramatist, raised in the realm of rhetoric, taught by his father. Seneca ventured into politics and, after enduring eight years of exile, became a tutor to Emperor Nero. Although his nine tragedies, designed for recitation, abstain from naturalistic dialogue, they are steeped in rhetoric, a theme Eliot critiques with careful consideration.

Eliot explores Seneca's stoic philosophy extensively, describing it as an endeavor to ‘‘join one’s self with the Universe.’’ Popular in Roman times, stoicism advocated a passive acceptance of a world seen as hostile to feeble mortals. Eliot suggests that stoicism, which he views as inferior to Christianity, subtly underpins the works of Shakespeare and other Renaissance authors, complicating the moral and aesthetic fabric of their plays. Though Seneca did not originate stoicism, he chronicled and practiced it, despite his pupil Nero's notorious escapades that starkly opposed its principles.

William Shakespeare

The details of William Shakespeare's life (1564-1616) remain surprisingly sparse, despite his towering stature as perhaps the most illustrious English author. Originating from Stratford-upon-Avon in the English midlands, Shakespeare had relocated to London by 1592 to pursue acting and playwriting. Alongside his renowned sonnets, he crafted an array of dramatic works—comedies, histories, and tragedies alike. His oeuvre is lauded for a multitude of seemingly contradictory reasons, with critics like Eliot celebrating the lyrical and poetic brilliance of his writing and the enduring human emotions his characters convey. Shakespeare's plays were not compiled into a collected edition until 1623 when two of his company members assembled what they deemed the authentic versions into the ‘‘first folio.’’

Algernon Charles Swinburne

Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837-1909) was a prolific figure encompassing poetry, playwriting, novel writing, and criticism. Renowned as a vehement critic of Victorian morality, his 1866 poems made him both celebrated and reviled due to their defiant and provocative themes. Swinburne possessed a vivid imagination, both reinvigorating traditional forms and inventing new ones, though Eliot notes the challenge in discerning "meaning" or consistency within his works.

Cyril Tourneur

Elizabethan playwright Cyril Tourneur (c. 1575-1626) likely balanced a career in military and diplomatic fields alongside his playwriting endeavors. Little is known about his personal life, yet Eliot acknowledges his play, The Revenger's Tragedy, as a "masterpiece," while critiquing its "immature moral vision" compared to other works attributed to Tourneur.

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