The Birth of Science Fiction

Science Fiction traces its lineage back to the vibrant, inventive pulse of the nineteenth century—a period when the world surged forward with groundbreaking innovations. This was an era where the wonders of science and the allure of the scientific method were heralded as harbingers of progress. Among these marvels was the daguerreotype, an early form of photography, granting humanity the ability to capture images with unprecedented speed and precision. As the century drew to a close, this technological narrative expanded further with the introduction of motion pictures, signaling a new frontier in visual storytelling.

The Challenge of New Ideas

As scientific endeavors gained momentum, they began to disrupt entrenched beliefs. The publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species in 1859 sent shockwaves through the intellectual world, challenging the notion of humankind’s unique place in the cosmos. Darwin, supported by geologists who unearthed evidence of an ancient Earth, posited that humans and apes shared a common lineage, a theory that rattled the foundations of established thought.

Technological Evolution and Literary Inspiration

The dawn of the twentieth century brought forth transformative transportation technologies: the gasoline-fueled automobile traversing the land and the airplane conquering the skies. World War I was a crucible for technological innovation, introducing tanks to the battlefield in 1917. These advancements ignited the imaginations of Science Fiction and Fantasy writers, fueling a literary renaissance in the 1920s spearheaded by Hugo Gernsback’s pulp magazines, so named for their inexpensive wood pulp paper and sometimes perceived lack of quality.

In a pivotal moment of 1926, Robert H. Goddard, an American scientist, launched the world's first liquid-fuel rocket, setting the stage for the intense rocket development competition between the United States and the Soviet Union during the 1950s and 1960s. Meanwhile, Orson Welles immortalized himself in media history on October 31, 1938, with his radio dramatization of H. G. Wells’s The War of the Worlds, which led countless listeners to believe in a real alien invasion, sparking widespread panic.

Astounding Growth and Challenges

That same year, 1938, marked the rise of John W. Campbell as editor of Astounding Stories, later rebranded as Astounding Science Fiction. Campbell's dedication to quality elevated the magazine, fostering the careers of emerging Science Fiction luminaries and ushering in the genre's golden age, which shone brightly until the post-World War II years.

The outbreak of World War II in 1939 brought about severe paper shortages, threatening the existence of Science Fiction and Fantasy publications. Only the most robust survived, among them Astounding Stories. Its pages, featuring works by giants like Heinlein and Asimov, became foundational to modern Science Fiction. The devastating deployment of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 dramatically concluded the war.

A New Wave of Voices

The 1960s and 1970s heralded the New Wave of Science Fiction and Fantasy, a period brimming with experimental narratives. This era also saw a rise in female authors publishing under their true names, challenging the male-dominated readership that had previously necessitated the use of male or ambiguous pseudonyms, such as C. J. Cherryh or Leigh Brackett. Ursula K. Le Guin’s 1969 novel, The Left Hand of Darkness, stood as a bold critique of the genre's biases, exploring a world where gender was rendered irrelevant.

The Digital Revolution and Its Impact

The unveiling of ENIAC, the first computer, in 1946, undeniably reshaped modern society. While Science Fiction had long imagined a future dominated by robots, it was the computer that emerged as the pivotal technology. As the twenty-first century unfolds, with new, predominantly computer-driven technologies entering the fray,...

Utopia and Dystopia

A utopia unfolds as a narrative tapestry, portraying a world woven from the fibers of perfection—an ethereal society where ideals dance on the horizon, forever beyond reach. Authors craft these visionary realms not with the expectation of their realization but rather to ignite the fires of discourse, challenging readers to reflect on societal issues and perhaps spark a transformation. In Science Fiction, writers explore the paradox of utopias by delving into the heart of dystopias—grim foretellings of futures where the pursuit of paradise morphs into a haunting nightmare. Among the pantheon of dystopian tales, Huxley’s Brave New World and Orwell’s 1984 stand as monumental critiques.

Within Huxley’s somber vision, a society has vanquished the specters of illness, conflict, and despair, but at a cost that bleeds humanity of its essence. Here, individuals are molded in laboratories, their destinies dictated by societal roles, and any flicker of divergence or creativity is dulled by pharmacological leashes. When a naturally-born human endeavors to rebel against this mechanized order, he confronts a world leader who justifies the forfeiture of myriad human pursuits, including faith, in the name of technological advancement: “Call it the fault of civilization. God isn’t compatible with machinery and scientific medicine and universal happiness. You must make your choice.”

While Huxley’s engineered populace drifts in a drug-induced contentment, Orwell’s 1984 paints a starkly different canvas. Here, terror and suspicion grip the minds of citizens, coercing them into obedience under the regime’s unyielding grip. Politics dictate life, and ominous reminders plaster the walls, warning that “Big Brother Is Watching You.” Winston Smith, the story’s courageous yet doomed protagonist, attempts to stand against Big Brother’s tyranny, only to be shattered both mentally and physically by the iron fist of totalitarian rule.

Description

Science Fiction, by its very essence, intertwines with scientific exposition. In some narratives, like Asimov’s I, Robot, the scientific intricacies are carefully detailed, becoming the lifeblood of the plot. Asimov describes, “Inside the thin platinum-plated ‘skin’ of the globe was a positronic brain, in whose delicately unstable structure were enforced calculated neuronic paths.” This mechanical brain, much like its human counterpart, nests “snugly into the cavity in the skull of the robot.” The robots’ cognitive journeys weave through each storyline, driving the narrative forward.

Conversely, other Science Fiction tales merely brush against technological marvels, using them as backdrops rather than focal points. In Ursula K. Le Guin’s The Left Hand of Darkness, the human envoy to the distant world of Gethen wields an ansible communicator, bridging light-years in an instant. “The principle it works on ... is analogous in some ways to gravity... What it does... is produce a message at any two points simultaneously.” To the planet’s monarch, the device barely raises an eyebrow and remains a mere narrative footnote. Instead, Le Guin’s readers are captivated by the nuanced societal dynamics shaped by the aliens’ distinctive biology, free from the bonds of gender bias.

Setting

The choice of setting is a pivotal decision for Science Fiction and Fantasy authors, as it sculpts the very essence of their stories. These genres often adhere to enduring "rules"—like Asimov’s iconic "Three Laws of Robotics." These frameworks can impose creative boundaries. While some authors creatively flex or transcend these boundaries, doing so demands the construction of a persuasive and enthralling alternative reality.

The setting also serves as a compass, hinting at whether a story belongs to Science Fiction or Fantasy. Though the line between the two genres often blurs, Card, in his seminal work How to Write Science Fiction and Fantasy, offers a definition based on his own journey as a writer: “A rustic setting always suggests fantasy; to suggest Science Fiction, you need sheet metal and plastic. You need rivets.” However, since the advent of the New Wave in the 1960s, ushered in by luminaries like Heinlein and Harlan Ellison, the demarcation of these genres by their settings has become increasingly nuanced and complex.

From the dawn of cinematic storytelling, science fiction has cast an extraordinary spell on the evolution of motion pictures. It has continuously challenged the boundaries of what is possible in the realm of special effects. This visionary genre found its first cinematic expression in George Méliès’s groundbreaking 1902 film, A Trip to the Moon.

Since those early days, the journey of science fiction films has been a rollercoaster of successes and missteps. Many beloved literary masterpieces were transformed into films that often favored visual spectacle over narrative fidelity. A notable milestone came in 1926 with Fritz Lang's epic Metropolis, a dystopian glimpse into a future where sprawling cities disconnect from humanity, and robots threaten to supplant the working class.

Television's Sci-Fi Revolution

The sci-fi genre broke new ground in 1963 when the British television series Dr. Who embarked on an astonishing 26-season, 695-episode journey. Then, in 1966, Gene Roddenberry introduced audiences to Star Trek in the United States, which initially received a lukewarm reception. Over time, however, Roddenberry's visionary sagas inspired a wave of spin-offs, films, novels, and an entire subculture of dedicated fans, affectionately called Trekkies or Trekkers. The 1999 film Galaxy Quest humorously captured the spirit of Star Trek devotion.

Cinematic Milestones

With the 1968 release of Stanley Kubrick's masterful adaptation of Arthur C. Clarke’s 2001: A Space Odyssey, science fiction films ascended to new heights of critical acclaim. The subsequent arrival of George Lucas's original Star Wars trilogy in the late 1970s and early 1980s reignited the genre's appeal, sparking a fervor akin to the Star Trek phenomenon. In the 21st century, Lucas expanded his universe with a trilogy of prequels, further enhancing the saga’s legendary status.

The 1980s and 1990s ushered in a golden era of influential sci-fi films. Among them, Blade Runner, inspired by Philip K. Dick’s novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, stood out as a rare faithful adaptation that garnered a cult following for both the film and its author. Other noteworthy original films from this era include Steven Spielberg’s blockbuster E.T.—reimagined in 2002—and James Cameron's iconic Terminator series, alongside the whimsical adventure of the Back to the Future trilogy.

As we ventured into the 21st century, science fiction films and television series continued to captivate audiences, consistently pioneering revolutionary special effects and maintaining their vibrant presence in popular culture.

1900s: In a daring leap towards the skies, the Wright Brothers soar into history at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, transforming the dream of human flight into a breathtaking reality.

1940s: Visionary scientist Wernher von Braun, born in Germany, crafts the V-2 rocket, aspiring for cosmic journeys. Yet, under Hitler's shadow, it becomes a weapon of war. Von Braun's journey takes a pivotal turn as he defects to America, pioneering the path to celestial exploration alongside American scientists.

Today: NASA, the emblem of space exploration, weaves tales of triumph and adversity as it steadfastly embarks on cosmic odysseys, reaching for the stars with unwavering resolve.

1900s: Albert Einstein unveils the enigmatic dance of atoms, proving their presence with his groundbreaking work.

1940s: The United States harnesses the formidable power of the atom, showcasing its devastating potential with atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, hastening the end of World War II.

Today: Post-Cold War, a treacherous new reality emerges as nuclear arsenals of the former Soviet Union fall into the hands of rogue groups. The 2001 attack on New York's World Trade Center shifts America's fears towards bio-weaponry and suicide bombings, igniting a relentless war on terror.

1900s: In 1901, the airwaves crackle with history as Guglielmo Marconi, the ingenious Italian physicist, receives the world's first long-distance wireless message in Morse Code, bridging England to Newfoundland in an instant.

1940s: Bell Labs unveils a marvel—the transistor—revolutionizing electronics by amplifying electric currents with remarkable efficiency and economy, first transforming telephones.

Today: The digital age flourishes as wireless technology enables instant global communication, with phones and computers transmitting data effortlessly via microprocessors—tiny chips packed with a labyrinth of millions of microscopic transistors.

Brave New World

Aldous Huxley’s internationally celebrated masterpiece, Brave New World, released to the world in 1932, paints a chilling image of a potential future where politics and technology overshadow the essence of humanity. Within its pages, Huxley conjures up a "perfect" society devoid of illness, conflict, or war, but at a price. Here, humans are manufactured in laboratories; social strata are meticulously engineered through genetic coding to determine intellect and physique; and undesirable emotions are anesthetized with soma, a mind-altering drug. In this mechanized reality, one naturally born outsider is labeled a savage. Critics have frequently pointed to Huxley’s profound cynicism, examining the novel through the lens of life following World War I, as governments relentlessly pursued scientific and technological advancements. The novel stands beside George Orwell’s similarly unsettling 1984 as a pillar of dystopian Science Fiction.

The Chronicles of Narnia

"The Chronicles of Narnia," penned by C.S. Lewis, is a beloved seven-book Fantasy odyssey, first appearing between 1950 and 1956. The series originally began with The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, a tale of four English children who stumble upon a mystical portal to Narnia, a parallel universe of Fantasy, hidden within a wardrobe. In this enchanted land, the siblings discover their destiny to fulfill an ancient prophecy. Their journey introduces them to mythical creatures, a battle with a malevolent witch, and the sacrificial death and resurrection of the lion Aslan, a Christ-like figure. Deeply imbued with Christian allegories, the series has been embraced by young readers, despite some critics’ concerns over its portrayal of violence. Like his friend and contemporary, J.R.R. Tolkien, Lewis’s creation of a vivid new world has inspired countless authors.

Frankenstein

Mary Shelley’s groundbreaking novel, Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus, was conceived in her late teens as part of a spirited writing challenge among her circle of luminaries, including her future husband Percy Bysshe Shelley, the notorious Lord Byron, and Byron’s physician, John Polidori. Released to the public in 1818, Shelley’s tale is hailed as the inaugural work of Science Fiction, favoring science over supernatural elements. Diverging significantly from its cinematic renditions, the tale chronicles Dr. Frankenstein’s audacious experiment to instill life into an amalgamated corpse. The creature, devoid of a soul, becomes a pariah, launching a vengeful quest that ends in the icy expanse of the Arctic. Initially dismissed as a mere Gothic story, Frankenstein has since been recognized for its profound existential themes and has garnered lasting acclaim.

The Hobbit

In 1937, J.R.R. Tolkien unveiled The Hobbit, a whimsical narrative recounting the exploits of Bilbo Baggins, a hobbit from the realm of Middle-Earth. Throughout his adventurous journey, Bilbo encounters a host of otherworldly beings, from dragons and goblins to wizards, elves, and creatures of speech. Integral to the tale is a mysterious ring, discovered by Bilbo, which later becomes central to Tolkien’s expansive follow-up, "The Lord of the Rings" trilogy. Tolkien’s imaginative storytelling and masterful world-building have captivated both critics and general audiences, leaving a profound influence on the Fantasy and Science Fiction genres and sparking a devoted following.

I, Robot

While Isaac Asimov was not the pioneer of robot literature, he revolutionized its narrative. His collection of early robot stories, initially published in Science Fiction periodicals in the 1940s, introduced and exemplified the iconic Three Laws of Robotics:

One, a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. . . . Two . . . a robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. . . . Three, a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.

Gathered into the 1950 volume I, Robot, these stories earned Asimov critical acclaim, primarily for the "Three Laws," which have been lauded and adopted by numerous Science Fiction writers. Critics have commended the ethical paradigm set by Asimov, with many speculating that these principles could guide future robotic development.

The Martian Chronicles

Ray Bradbury’s The Martian Chronicles, first published in 1950, catapulted him to fame, positioning him among the first Science Fiction authors to receive wide critical praise. Although many regard Bradbury as one of the premier Science Fiction writers, purists argue that much of his "Science Fiction" work, including The Martian Chronicles—depicting a Mars vastly different from scientific reality—is more akin to Fantasy. The tales recount repeated human attempts to colonize Mars and feature elements like space travel and robotics. Yet, it is the emotional resonance, not the scientific backdrop, that sets the collection apart. Bradbury’s haunting blend of future possibilities and Fantasy won the admiration of both critics and the public. Unlike many contemporaries who advocated for unbridled technological advancement, Bradbury warned against the overreach of science at humanity’s expense, a theme central to The Martian Chronicles.

In Slaughterhouse Five, Kurt Vonnegut weaves a tapestry of experience, drawing deeply from his firsthand witnessing of the 1945 firebombing of Dresden, Germany. This cataclysmic event becomes the backdrop for the tale of Billy Pilgrim, a protagonist burdened with haunting memories of war. To escape these echoes of devastation, Billy embarks on journeys through time and space, finding solace on the distant planet of Tralfamadore. Here, he revisits the cherished moments of his past, a respite from the relentless specter of warfare. Each time he encounters the grim realities of conflict, Billy utters the stoic refrain, "so it goes," a powerful mantra that reverberates through the narrative, imbuing the inevitability of death with a haunting resonance. Upon its release in 1969, this novel found an eager audience amidst the turmoil of the Vietnam era, resonating deeply with its themes of warfare and survival. Lauded by critics—an unusual fate for a Science Fiction work during that period—Vonnegut’s narrative transcended genre boundaries, subtly redefining literary expectations and championing the artistic merit of Science Fiction.

Stranger in a Strange Land

Published in 1961, Robert Heinlein's groundbreaking Stranger in a Strange Land soared to become Science Fiction’s first major bestseller. Unlike his previous forays into the genre, this novel boldly explored human philosophy, religion, and social constructs, veering from technological wonders to dissect the intricacies of human nature. The story follows Valentine Michael Smith, a human nurtured by Martians, who returns to Earth as an enigmatic outsider grappling with the idiosyncrasies of human culture. Endowed with extraordinary abilities by his Martian guardians, he emerges as a prophet-like figure, sparking a spiritual revolution. While the novel might flirt with the fantastical, its profound impact reverberated through the Science Fiction community, inspiring a generation of writers. Embraced fervently by the counterculture of the 1960s, it became a beacon of free love and radical thought, though not without drawing the ire of critics who branded Heinlein with accusations of fascism.

The Time Machine: An Invention, H.G. Wells’s seminal work from 1895, marks the dawn of a new age in Science Fiction literature. This pioneering narrative delves into the distant future, more than 800,000 years beyond our own, where evolution has forged humanity into two divergent species. The effete Eloi, descendants of the privileged classes, exist in idyllic ignorance, while the Morlocks, ape-like denizens of the subterranean world, toil in darkness and view the Eloi as prey. The time traveler, our guide through these epochs, pushes further into the abyss of time, witnessing the dimming of the Sun and the eventual extinction of earthly life. Hailed by critics of his era as a visionary triumph, Wells's work continues to captivate both scholarly critics and the reading public. Though both Wells and Jules Verne are lauded as progenitors of modern Science Fiction, Wells’s imaginative inventions, such as time travel, have undeniably cast a more enduring influence.

Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea

Jules Verne’s enthralling Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, part of his esteemed “Extraordinary Journeys” series, has enchanted global audiences for well over a century. First serialized in a French magazine in 1870, it chronicles the daring exploits of Captain Nemo aboard the mighty submarine Nautilus. While Verne is often celebrated as a prophet of technological innovation, his visionary ideas often sprang from historical precedent or the vanguard of contemporary scientific inquiry. Over the years, many of Verne’s works, including this iconic tale, suffered from poor translation into English, initially relegating them to the realm of children’s literature. However, as new translations surfaced, they revealed the intricate narrative layers and profound literary craftsmanship that have since earned Verne his rightful place in the Science Fiction pantheon.

Classic Literary Works as Audiobooks

Brave New World emerged in audio form in the year 1998, brought to listeners by Audio Partners and narrated with finesse by Michael York.

Television Adaptations of "The Chronicles of Narnia"

BBC Television transformed four of Lewis's enchanting "The Chronicles of Narnia" tales into award-laden television productions. The magical journey began with The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe in 1988 under the direction of Marilyn Fox. Following closely were Prince Caspian and The Voyage of the "Dawn Treader" in 1989, and The Silver Chair in 1990, all masterfully directed by Alex Kirby. These captivating series are conveniently available in a boxed set.

Cinematic Journeys Through "Frankenstein"

The legendary director James Whale unveiled the cinematic masterpiece, Frankenstein, in 1931, courtesy of Universal Studios. Colin Clive took on the role of Dr. Frankenstein, while Boris Karloff immortalized the Monster. This classic film is accessible on both VHS and DVD formats, complete with special features such as the original theatrical trailer, commentary by film historian Rudy Behlmer, production notes, a revealing documentary entitled The Frankenstein Files: How Hollywood Made a Monster, and a collection of archival photographs.

Frankenstein's tale has undergone various film adaptations, including Kenneth Branagh's rendition, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, released in 1994 and featuring Branagh alongside Robert De Niro. Notably, Mel Brooks offered a comedic twist with his film Young Frankenstein in 1974, starring Gene Wilder, Peter Boyle, and Marty Feldman.

Adventures in Middle-earth

The Hobbit, transformed into an audiobook by Recorded Books in 2001 and brought to life by Rob Inglis, also graced the screen as an animated film in 1978.

The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, the inaugural installment of the epic "Lord of the Rings" trilogy, made its cinematic debut in December 2001. Directed by the visionary Peter Jackson, it featured Elijah Wood as Frodo The Hobbit. In a remarkable feat, Jackson filmed the entire trilogy simultaneously, with each part scheduled to premiere annually.

Classic Sci-Fi and Fantasy on Screen

The Martian Chronicles, adapted into a television miniseries in 1980 under the direction of Michael Anderson, showcased Roddy McDowell as Father Stone, Darren McGavin as Sam Parkhill, and Bernie Casey as Major Jeff Spender. This series is available on video through USA Video.

Slaughterhouse Five was brought to life as a film in 1972 by Universal Pictures, under the direction of George Roy Hill and starring Michael Sacks as Billy Pilgrim. It can be found on VHS or DVD through Image Entertainment.

The Time Machine made its cinematic entrance in 1960, a joint effort of Galaxy Films and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), directed by George Pal and featuring Rod Taylor as the intrepid time traveler. Available on VHS or DVD through Warner Home Video, the DVD includes a behind-the-scenes documentary, The Time Machine: The Journey Back, hosted by Taylor, with appearances by co-stars Alan Young and Whit Bissell.

The classic tale, Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, first surfaced as a silent film in 1916, directed by Stuart Paton and featuring Allen Holubar as Captain Nemo. It can be experienced on DVD from Image Entertainment. Later, Walt Disney Pictures offered their own rendition in 1954, with Kirk Douglas as Ned Land and James Mason as Captain Nemo.

Sources

Aldiss, Brian W., with David Wingrove, Trillion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction, Atheneum, 1986, pp. 39–40, 75, 118.

Asimov, Isaac, I, Robot, Bantam Books, 1991, pp. 44–45, 73.

Card, Orson Scott, Ender’s Game, Tor Books, 1977, p. 208.

—, How to Write Science Fiction and Fantasy, Writer’s Digest Books, 1990, pp. 4, 21.

Haldeman, Joe, The Forever War, Avon Books, 1974, pp. 225, 229.

Harrison, Harry, “The Term Defined,” in Science Fiction: The Academic Awakening, College English Association, 1974, p. 39.

Heinlein, Robert A., Stranger in a Strange Land, Ace Books, 1987, p. 115.

Huxley, Aldous, Brave New World, HarperPerennial, 1989, p. 240.

Kagarlitski, Julius, “Realism and Fantasy,” in SF: The Other Side of Realism, edited by Thomas D. Clareson, Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1971, p. 29.

Le Guin, Ursula K., The Left Hand of Darkness, 25th Anniversary ed., Walker and Company, 1994, pp. 40–41.

Lerner, Frederick Andrew, Modern Science Fiction and the American Literary Community, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1985, pp. xiv–xvi.

Orwell, George, 1984, Signet Classic, 1950, p. 5.

Tolkien, J. R. R., The Hobbit, Ballantine Books, 1965, pp. 4, 18–19, 60, 62, 85, 248.

Wells, H. G., The Time Machine, Bantam Books, 1991, pp. 4, 21, 29.

Williamson, Jack, “SF in the Classroom,” in Science Fiction: The Academic Awakening, College English Association, 1974, p. 11.

Wood, Michael, “Tolkien’s Fictions,” in New Society, March 27, 1969.

Further Reading

Alkon, Paul K., Science Fiction before 1900: Imagination Discovers Technology, Twayne Publishers, 1994. This book gives information on early Science Fiction works and how they were important in the beginning stages of the movement. The works are then placed in comparison with other literary works from their time period.

Asimov, Isaac, I. Asimov: A Memoir, Bantam Spectra, 1995. Asimov’s final collection of autobiographical essays contains many of his personal opinions and life stories. He discusses his views on such wide-ranging topics as science, society, other Science Fiction writers, and religion.

Disch, Thomas M., The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of: How Science Fiction Conquered the World, Touchstone Books, 2000. This work contains historical information and critiques of various works and styles of Science Fiction literature. It gives an in-depth explanation of the different types of literature and gives blunt assessments of the work of the major authors from the field.

Hartwell, David G., Age of Wonders: Exploring the World of Science Fiction, Tor Books, 1996. Hartwell’s book is a great primer for anyone interested in learning more about Science Fiction. The book, written by a noted editor in the Science Fiction field, includes a critical overview of the field, recommended readings, and even a section on the business of Science Fiction publishing.

Roberts, Adam, and John Drakakis, Science Fiction, New Critical Idiom series, Routledge, 2000. Roberts provides a great reference for Science Fiction novices, offering a brief history of the Science Fiction field, an explanation of the critical terminology, and an overview of the key concepts in Science Fiction criticism and theory.

Toffler, Alvin, Future Shock, Bantam Books, 1991. Originally published in 1970, Toffler’s classic book about how people either do or do not adapt to technological changes in a fast-paced, industrial society, is still relevant in today’s information age.

Tolkien, J. R. R., The Silmarillion, Ballantine Books, 1990. The Silmarillion is a good book for anyone interested in examining the origins of Tolkien’s The Hobbit and “The Lord of the Rings” series. It gives background and historical information of this Fantasy world, as well as events that take place long before the beginning of Tolkien’s four-volume Middle-Earth saga.