Historical Context

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The Transcendentalist Movement

The Scarlet Letter, set in colonial seventeenth-century New England, was actually written and published during the mid-nineteenth century. Hawthorne began crafting the novel in 1849 following his dismissal from the Custom-House, and it was released in 1850. The gap between the period depicted in the novel and the time it was created often confuses students. Since Hawthorne chose an earlier era as his subject, the novel is classified as a historical romance, emerging during the American literary movement known as transcendentalism (circa 1836–60).

Key figures in transcendentalism included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and W. H. Channing. Broadly, transcendentalism was a counter-reaction to the rationalism of the previous century and the strict religious orthodoxy of Calvinist New England. It emphasized romantic ideals of mysticism, idealism, and individualism. In religious terms, transcendentalists viewed God not as a remote, stern authority but as an integral part of both individuals and the natural world, which they believed were inseparable. This profound unity of all matter, human and natural, suggested that knowledge of the world and its laws could be achieved through a kind of mystical union with the world. This concept was perhaps most famously articulated in Emerson's Nature, where he wrote,

I become a transparent eyeball, I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part and parcel of God.

Although Hawthorne was acquainted with many transcendentalists, including Emerson, and even lived for a time at the transcendentalist experimental community of Brook Farm, he remained somewhat on the periphery of the movement. Hawthorne even mocks Brook Farm and his transcendentalist peers in “The Custom-House,” calling them his “dreamy brethren indulging in fantastic speculation.” While they believed in the potential to gain knowledge through mystical experiences, Hawthorne was much more skeptical.

Abolitionism and Revolution

More significant to Hawthorne’s literary works, particularly The Scarlet Letter, were the movements of abolitionism and European revolution. Hawthorne viewed these events as episodes of threatening instability. Abolitionism was the nineteenth-century movement aimed at ending slavery in the United States. It varied in intensity but included a radical strain that contributed to the climate leading up to John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859. (John Brown aimed to establish a base for armed slave insurrection.) The increasing intensity and violence of abolitionism were significant factors leading to the Civil War. Hawthorne’s conservative stance on abolitionism did not necessarily mean he supported slavery, but he clearly opposed abolitionists, stating that slavery was “one of those evils which divine Providence does not leave to be remedied by human contrivances.”

Hawthorne was apprehensive about violent disruptions to the social order, akin to those occurring in Europe when he wrote The Scarlet Letter. The social turmoil that captivated Americans the most began with the 1848 revolution in France. These upheavals, along with other revolutions of the time, saw the lower and middle classes challenging established power and authority. Although these revolutions ultimately failed, they were predominantly fought under the banner of socialism. This association with socialism sparked concern in America. As one journalist noted, as quoted by Bercovitch, there were “foreboding shadows” of “Communism, Socialism, Pillage, Murder, Anarchy, and the Guillotine vs. Law and Order, Family and Property.” Recently, critics have highlighted Hawthorne’s use of guillotine imagery in “The Custom-House” (where he even proposes the title “The Posthumous Papers of a Decapitated Surveyor” for his story) and his metaphors of personal victimization as indicators of his views on revolution and social stability.

The Puritan Colonies

Although the novel was penned in the mid-nineteenth century, it depicts events set in the mid-seventeenth century (1642–49). The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by John Winthrop (whose death is depicted near the middle of the novel) and other Puritans in 1630. They aimed to create an ideal community in America that could serve as a model for reforming the corrupt civil and religious order in England. This mission was central to their religious and social identity. To achieve this ideal, the Puritans enforced strict moral regulations; any sin within the community threatened not only individual souls but also the possibility of achieving civil and religious perfection in America and in England. It is no coincidence that the years Hawthorne chose to depict in The Scarlet Letter coincided with the English Civil War between King Charles I and the Puritan Parliament, which naturally garnered support from the New England colonists.

Expert Q&A

Does the character conflict in The Scarlet Letter reflect Hawthorne's doubts about the evolving America? How do his views on human nature affect attempts to build a better society?

The character conflict in The Scarlet Letter reflects Nathaniel Hawthorne's doubts about evolving America through Hester Prynne's journey. Initially symbolizing the old society, Hester's transformation after her child's birth represents hope and the aspiration to build a better world. Hawthorne's views on human nature suggest skepticism about idealistic societal changes, emphasizing that personal redemption and moral complexity are crucial to societal improvement.

What is the irony in the following statements from The Scarlet Letter, and what point is Hawthorne making about Puritan society?

a. "Truly, friend, and methinks it must gladden your heart, after your troubles and sojourn in the wilderness...to find yourself, at length, in a land where iniquity is search out, and punished in the sight of rulers and people; as her in our godly New England"

b. "The penalty thereof is death. But, in their great mercy and tenderness of heart, they have doomed Mistress Prynne to stand only a space of three house on the platform of the pillory, and then thereafter. for the remainder of her natural life, to wear a mark of shame upon her bosom"

The first quote is a sarcastic comment on the hypocrisy of Puritan society. The second is an example of verbal irony: Hester's punishment is not at all what it seems.

The use of symbols and historical context to develop themes and character connections in The Scarlet Letter

In The Scarlet Letter, symbols like the scarlet letter "A" and the scaffold, along with the historical context of Puritan society, develop themes of sin, guilt, and redemption. These symbols and the strict moral codes of the time connect characters like Hester Prynne, Arthur Dimmesdale, and Roger Chillingworth, revealing their inner struggles and societal judgments.

Social Concerns

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Nathaniel Hawthorne is often regarded as the chronicler of America's Puritan heritage. The Scarlet Letter stands out as the most famous among his numerous novels and tales, in which he vividly recreates the atmosphere of a time in American history when religious and social intolerance suppressed individual expression and compelled young people to restrain their natural desires. During this period, personal quirks were not only frowned upon but sometimes met with outright hostility. The countryside was engulfed in hysteria, fueled by preachers and politicians who incited a religious fervor among the populace. This fervor was so intense that deviations from strict religious practices or minor social or moral lapses were construed as evidence of imagined, heinous crimes. Notably, Hawthorne's own ancestors were involved in the infamous Salem witch trials in Massachusetts.

The prevailing attitudes in New England society during the early colonial period serve as the foundation for the societal portrait that Hawthorne aims to depict in his story of Hester Prynne and Arthur Dimmesdale’s doomed love affair. Hawthorne believed that the American character was partially shaped by the events and collective mindset of this bygone era. He felt that future generations needed to understand their ancestry to make sense of contemporary society.

Compare and Contrast

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  • 1640s: The Puritans were driven by their mission to create a model community for the Protestant world.

    1850s: America embraced the ideology of “manifest destiny,” believing that the expansion of Americans across the continent was inevitable and divinely ordained, suggesting the nation was destined to become a global power.

    Today: America's global influence appears secure with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, yet seems diminished with the economic rise of countries like Japan and Germany.

  • 1640s: The colonists, without clear provocation, allied with the Narraganset Indians against the Pequot Indians, resulting in the massacre of seven hundred Pequot men, women, and children.

    1850s: Native land claims east of the Mississippi were nearly eradicated following President Jackson’s removal of the “five civilized tribes” in the late 1830s, leading to their forced march to Oklahoma, known as “The Trail of Tears.”

    Today: Native peoples continue to survive and grow in dispersed regions, persistently fighting legal battles over land claims.

  • 1640s: Anne Hutchinson had recently caused unrest in the Massachusetts Bay Colony by claiming that salvation came through inner knowledge of the Holy Spirit, rather than outward good deeds.

    1850s: Transcendentalists challenged orthodox religious views by asserting that individuals could experience God and understand His laws through personal revelation.

    Today: Despite the rise of religious fundamentalism and widespread skepticism of religious beliefs, the idea that God is present in nature or within the individual remains popular.

  • 1640s: Women were strictly barred from holding official political or religious positions of power.

    1850s: The women’s suffrage movement gained momentum after the first women’s rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848, focusing on property ownership and voting rights.

    Today: After securing the right to vote in 1920, women now hold political offices ranging from mayor to senator to vice president. Although women have advanced in the business sector, they remain underrepresented in executive roles and still face discrimination.

Expert Q&A

In "The Custom-House," introduction to The Scarlet Letter, what war did General Miller fight in?

In the introduction "The Custom-House" to The Scarlet Letter, General Miller, a minor character, fought in the War of 1812. He was awarded his position as the head customs collector at the Salem Custom House due to his military service. This setting frames the discovery of Hester Prynne's story by the narrator, who is presumed to be Nathaniel Hawthorne, providing a backdrop for the novel's events.

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