World War I and the Expansion of the Anti-war Movement

By July 1918, the United States was dispatching over 3,000 troops each month to Europe to engage in World War I (1914–18). By the time the war concluded in November 1918, U.S. combat deaths had reached 51,000, while non-combat but war-related deaths totaled 62,000.

Although the atrocities of World War I led people to call it "the war to end all wars," this optimistic belief did not hold true. World War II erupted in 1939 and lasted until 1945. Almost all the nations involved in World War I also participated in World War II. Among the approximately 50 million fatalities from the war, over 405,000 were Americans. This figure includes those who perished in the Holocaust—a term used to describe the Nazis' campaign to exterminate groups they considered genetically inferior—and the United States' atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.

Despite the establishment of the United Nations in 1945 to prevent future global conflicts, achieving peace remained challenging. By 1961, a year after the release of "The Scarlet Ibis," the United States had deployed 4,000 troops to South Vietnam in response to a perceived Communist threat. The Cold War was intensifying, with significant tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. In February 1960, France conducted its first atomic bomb test, and by 1959, the Soviet Union had concluded that any future conflict would be nuclear and global. In October 1960, U.S. presidential candidate John F. Kennedy proposed the idea of the Peace Corps, aimed at fostering understanding between the United States and the rest of the world. During this period, U.S. involvement in Vietnam and the Cold War spurred a significant rise in the peace movement, which had first become organized after World War II. The peace movement called for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam, arguing that it would reduce regional tensions and bloodshed, and that other nations should resolve their issues without foreign military intervention. By April 1970, about 115,000 U.S. troops had been pulled out of Vietnam, but a complete withdrawal was not achieved until 1973.

Eugenics

It is challenging to read "The Scarlet Ibis" without considering the history of eugenics. Eugenics, derived from the Greek term for "good breeding," aimed to enhance human genetic traits through social interventions such as selective breeding, forced sterilization of those deemed genetically inferior, and genetic engineering. The concept of selective breeding was first proposed by the Greek philosopher Plato (c. B.C. 427–c. B.C. 347). However, modern eugenics, which emerged from the burgeoning field of genetics, was developed in 1869 by Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), a British anthropologist and cousin of Charles Darwin (1809–1882), the founder of evolutionary theory.

Eugenicists with religious inclinations combined Galton's scientific arguments with the biblical commandment: "I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me" (Deut. 5:9). From this perspective, the forced sterilization of those deemed degenerate was perceived as a moral obligation. In 1927, the Supreme Court validated eugenic sterilization, with Judge Oliver Wendell Holmes (1841–1945) famously declaring, as cited in Trent's book Inventing the Feeble Mind, that "three generations of imbeciles are enough."

In the early twentieth century, many influential thinkers endorsed eugenics, but its reputation suffered greatly after World War II when it was identified as a core rationale for the Nazi genocide. Despite this, numerous national and regional governments continued practicing eugenics into the 1970s, and as of 2005, advocates of human genetic engineering have revived interest in the concept. The Nazis determined that anyone not fitting the so-called Aryan ideal (tall, blond, Nordic in appearance, and intelligent) should be exterminated. This detestable group included individuals who deviated from the norm, such as gypsies, homosexuals, intellectuals, dissidents, the disabled, and all European Jews.

Although the outspoken supporters of eugenics traditionally hailed from the educated elite, an unofficial form of genocide against disabled individuals was practiced by ordinary families well into modern times. Viewing a disabled child as a financial burden with a poor quality of life, families often allowed such children to deteriorate and die. This neglect occurred in hospitals and private homes alike, indicating that some within the medical community shared this perspective.

In "The Scarlet Ibis," Doodle’s family loves him and would never deliberately let him die. However, they fully anticipate his death, even preparing a coffin for him in advance. Brother, conversely, adopts a more forceful approach, trying to mold Doodle into his own ideal of what a brother should be. While the family expects Doodle to vanish through death, Brother expects him to disappear by conforming. When Brother's efforts fail, he abandons Doodle, resulting in his death. The attitudes of both the family and Brother towards Doodle provoke disturbing questions about society's views on disability.

Disabled Persons' Rights

Before the mid-nineteenth century, it was typical in American and European societies for individuals with mental or physical disabilities to live with their families and be integrated into society as much as possible. However, by the 1870s, a new perspective emerged that viewed a disabled child as a significant financial burden on working-class families, suggesting that such children should be placed in state-funded institutions for life. Families often did not resist, as having a disabled child carried a substantial social stigma. This stigma was likely due to the widespread belief that a disabled child was a form of divine punishment for the parents' or ancestors' misdeeds, or even a sign of immoral inbreeding among relatives. As a result, families who institutionalized their children often did not visit them or mention them to others.

Institutionalization continued to be the preferred approach to handling disabilities in many countries until as late as the 1970s. The conditions in these institutions ranged from acceptable to dreadful. However, with the economic boom following World War II, there was a rise in parental activism advocating for their disabled children. This movement was partly fueled by a renewed commitment to human rights in the aftermath of the Nazi genocide. There was a growing desire for disabled children to stay with their families and receive the same care and services, including education, as their non-disabled peers. This led to the process of deinstitutionalization, and in 1975, the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act by Congress ensured free public education for children with disabilities.

Setting

"The Scarlet Ibis" takes place in and around Brother's family home in the American South. The story is rich with vivid descriptions of the natural surroundings, including the family garden and the nearby countryside. Hurst never describes the setting merely for its own sake; it always serves to comment on the action. For instance, the mention of the "blighted" summer, with the hurricane toppling trees and wrecking crops, comes right after Brother details his intensified efforts to teach Doodle. These images of destruction highlight the damaging effects of Brother pushing Doodle beyond his limits.

Additionally, the nearby Old Woman Swamp represents nature's abundance and beauty. For Brother and Doodle, it symbolizes a world of endless possibilities and the splendor of life. Doodle is moved to tears when he first sees it, and the boys collect wild flowers to make garlands and crowns, adorning themselves like royalty. This place makes them feel regal, beautiful, and wealthy, with the flowers described as "jewels." Old Woman Swamp is also where Brother teaches Doodle to walk, which, despite its tragic outcome, represents a broadening of Doodle's horizons. Doodle dreams about living a joyful life in Old Woman Swamp.

Foreshadowing

Hurst frequently uses foreshadowing to hint at future events, creating suspense as readers anticipate the resolution of certain narrative threads. The first paragraph is an example: "It was in the clove of seasons, when summer was dead but autumn had not yet been born." This image of death is reinforced by the mention of the "untenanted" oriole nest rocking "like an empty cradle." Normally, cradles hold babies, symbolizing new life, but this one is empty, suggesting a dead child. This is followed by a reference to "the last graveyard flowers," which "speak the names of our dead," evoking the image of men who have died in the war. These images, combined with other elements like the doctor's warning about Doodle's weak heart, foreshadow Doodle's death.

Symbolism

The scarlet ibis is a carefully selected symbol. To understand its significance, it helps to know a bit about the bird. Native to the South American tropics, the scarlet ibis is a vivid red. Its color comes from the shrimp that make up most of its diet; without shrimp, it loses its color. It requires a specific habitat to thrive, feeding only in shallow coastal waters, mud flats, and lagoons. The scarlet ibis is an endangered species that has not bred successfully in its natural habitat since the 1960s. Factors contributing to this include coastal development, water pollution, and the depletion of food sources. Scarlet ibises are colonial nesters, meaning they nest in large flocks and rely on the presence of other birds of their species.

In "The Scarlet Ibis," the ibis is symbolically connected to Doodle right from the start. The bird's arrival sparks Brother's memories of Doodle, who instantly feels a kinship with the bird. Both the ibis and Doodle are solitary, unique, and out of place in their environments. Doodle, like the ibis, struggles to thrive in his surroundings; he is frail, sickly, and delicate. While Doodle sees the ibis’s beauty clearly, his own inner beauty is hidden beneath an unattractive exterior. Therefore, the bird represents Doodle's inner nature. Doodle is linked with divine and winged beings, much like the ibis is a literal winged creature. Both are depicted with sacred imagery, and one could argue they are both symbolically connected to Christ.

Narrative Technique

The story is narrated as a first-person recollection by Brother, who reflects on his childhood from his adult perspective. This allows him to infuse the events with the lessons he has learned over time. For instance, young Brother wouldn't have understood that his tears after teaching Doodle to walk stemmed from his shame and pride, "whose slave [he] was." This insight comes from the reflective adult Brother. The reminiscence technique also lets Brother foreshadow events, such as when he says, "I did not know then that pride is a wonderful, terrible thing, a seed that bears two vines, life and death." This hints that Brother will come to understand this truth through a significant event, which indeed occurs.

Although readers only see other characters through Brother's perspective, this doesn't necessarily align their sympathies with him. Many readers may feel more sympathy for Doodle due to the adult Brother's emotional honesty. He has had time to reflect and openly shares the less admirable aspects of his character and his feelings towards Doodle, revealing the "knot of cruelty borne by the stream of love." Doodle's character, if it has any harshness, is not shown; he appears as an innocent.

The adult Brother remains closely connected to the negative emotions children often feel towards their close relatives. Children are usually more transparent about their mixed emotions, openly expressing love and hate towards family and friends within minutes. Adults tend to suppress negative emotions, understanding the consequences of expressing them. However, the adult Brother does not hide his negative feelings for Doodle, which enhances readers' sympathy for the younger boy, who is the target of these feelings.

• 1910s: By July 1918, the United States had dispatched one million troops to Europe to participate in World War I (1914–1918), with an additional 200,000 men joining each month until the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918. After the war, various literary works and societal discussions questioned the war's necessity.

  1960s: In 1961, the United States sent 4,000 troops to South Vietnam in response to a perceived Communist threat. By July 1965, the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam had escalated to approximately 75,000, eventually exceeding 510,000 by early 1968. Opposition to U.S. involvement began in 1964 on college campuses, and in 1965, the National Coordinating Committee to End the War in Vietnam organized the first public draft card burning in the United States.

  Today: Between 2003 and 2005, significant global protests were held against the U.S./British-led invasion of Iraq. These demonstrations included some of the largest peace protests ever recorded before an invasion began.

• 1910s: Many leading intellectuals supported eugenics, a movement aimed at improving human hereditary traits through measures such as selective breeding and the forced sterilization of those deemed mentally or physically unfit. The Eugenics Record Office (ERO) was established in the United States in 1910. Over the years, the ERO collected numerous family pedigrees and concluded that those who were mentally and physically unfit often came from impoverished backgrounds.

  1960s: Eugenics became widely discredited after it was revealed that during the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis forcibly sterilized hundreds of thousands of individuals they considered unfit and euthanized thousands of disabled people. Nevertheless, some scientific communities and governmental bodies continued to quietly support eugenics, including the enforced sterilization of disabled individuals.

  Today: Some scientists advocate for human genetic engineering to enhance intelligence and fitness and to eliminate disabilities. The Human Genome Project, which aims to map human genetic information, has made the modification of the human species seem feasible again. The legalization of genetic patenting has introduced the potential for profit in human genetic engineering, drawing corporate interest in eugenics.

• 1910s: Unofficial euthanasia, where disabled children were allowed to die, was practiced within families and often supported by medical professionals. If the child survived, lifelong institutionalization funded by the state was the preferred solution.

  1960s: The civil rights and women's rights movements boosted the momentum of the disability rights movement that began after World War II ended in 1945. The movement's primary goals were to keep disabled children within their families and to enable them to live independently as adults, rather than being institutionalized.

  Today: In 1990, President George H. W. Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act into law. This comprehensive civil rights legislation prohibits discrimination based on disability and requires public services to accommodate individuals with disabilities.

Sources

Ebor, Donald, ed., The New English Bible with Apocrypha, New York: Oxford University Press, 1972, pp. 4-5.

Hurst, James, Telephone conversations with author, July and September 2005.

――――――, "The Scarlet Ibis," in the Atlantic Monthly, July 1960, pp. 48-53.

King James Bible, Deuteronomy 5:9.

Trent, James W., Jr., Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States, University of California Press, 1994, p. 199.

Further Reading

Keegan, John, The First World War, Vintage, 2000.

This book offers a vivid recount of the causes and development of World War I, utilizing diaries, letters, and action reports from the period. Keegan asserts that the war was avoidable.

Keller, Helen, The Story of My Life, Bantam Classics, 1990.

Born both deaf and blind, Keller overcame her disabilities to become a prominent suffragist, pacifist, social reformer, and author. She established several foundations that continue to support the deaf and blind into the early 2000s. This joyful, insightful, and beautifully written autobiography is credited with transforming social attitudes toward the disabled.

Nies, Betsy L., Eugenic Fantasies: Racial Ideology in the Literature and Popular Culture of the 1920s, Routledge, 2001.

Nies utilizes psychoanalytic theory, anthropology, and literary theory to argue that the rise of eugenics alleviated anxieties about war-torn bodies and served as a means to restore faith in the white male as the nation's protector.

Trent, James W., Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States, University of California Press, 1995.

Trent explores the history of how disabled individuals have been treated in the U.S., including institutionalization, neglect, sterilization, medical abuse, and mistreatment. The book contains disturbing photographs that illustrate these issues.