Rumble Fish opens and closes in California, at least five years after the main action of the story has transpired. Rusty-James, who narrates the story in the first person, describes a chance encounter with his former best friend, Steve Hays, who is now studying to be a teacher. The dialogue, which propels the novel, reveals that Rusty-James has been in a reformatory and creates the framework for the flashback that becomes the novel’s vehicle.

Much of the story’s action originates in Benny’s, a pool hall and bar that serves as a hangout for junior and senior high school students who are disillusioned by the poverty of their neighborhood and the callous indifference of adults to their frustration. They are frequently truant from school, unsuccessful in the classroom, and usually in trouble. School officials are depicted as corrupt; one coach even offers Rusty-James a five-dollar bribe to beat up another student. Police officials add to the conflict and tension of the neighborhood with their abuse of power and prejudiced treatment of Rusty-James and the Motorcycle Boy.

Parental figures, too, are destroyed by their own weaknesses; Rusty-James’ father was once a successful attorney, but, as an alcoholic, he now offers no security or role model for Rusty-James or his brother. Their mother, whom the Motorcycle Boy eventually locates in California, has abandoned all responsibility for her sons, and the story of being left alone by her when he was a toddler haunts Rusty-James. He has developed a fear of loneliness as a result of this early loss, but the eventual loss of his girlfriend, his best friend, his street reputation, and his brother leaves Rusty-James dazed; at the novel’s close, he is wandering California and still trying to forget the pain of his past.

Although the story’s language is somewhat dated—using terms such as “rumble,” for example, to refer the frequent street fights—the conflicts are real and transcend time and place. The ready availability of alcohol and other drugs, the pervasive threat of concealed weapons, the alienation and disdain felt by street kids with no power in mainstream society, the constant jockeying for position within the framework of the street—all these issues remain pertinent and challenging for young adults.

The bravado of the young toughs masks the insecurities and vulnerability just beneath the surface, and, as Rusty-James attempts to hold on more tightly to the Motorcycle Boy, his mask falls. Rusty-James suffers a serious stab wound in his fight with Biff, his girlfriend Patty breaks up with him, he gets transferred to a rival school where he knows he will be beaten by his enemies, and he and Steve are jumped after getting drunk in an adult theater with the Motorcycle Boy. Little by little, the thin fabric of their existence tears, and eventually even Steve tells Rusty-James that he is like the ball in a pinball machine, hopelessly buffeted by external forces. Steve recognizes that the randomness of this existence will destroy him, and he, too, abandons Rusty-James. Patty becomes Smokey’s girlfriend, and Rusty-James learns that the group leadership has shifted to Smokey as well. The final conflict in a pet store involving the Motorcycle Boy and the fighting “rumble” fish of the title, more than any scene in the story, symbolizes the persecution, the misunderstanding, and the wasted potential of these young lives.

Rumble Fish was published in 1975, but Hinton wrote it during the early 1970s. During that period, the Vietnam War was still ongoing, deeply dividing the American public between supporters and vehement protesters. The U.S. government finally pulled its last troops from combat in 1973, but the war left lasting psychological scars on everyone, from the soldiers who fought to those who stayed at home. In total, 3 million soldiers served in the war; 58,000 were killed, 1,000 went missing and were never found, and 304,000 were wounded.

The increasing use of drugs by young people, which gained popularity in the 1960s, continued into the 1970s, affecting all social classes. In 1975, First Lady Betty Ford mentioned in an interview that she believed her own children had experimented with marijuana.

The Civil Rights and feminist movements were still actively fighting for equal rights for minorities and women. Despite the support from many women for the feminist movement, its impact was slow to permeate American culture. As a result, like the girls in Rumble Fish, many women still felt their status was tied to the men they were with. Although significant progress had been made toward ensuring equal rights for all races, racial tensions continued to divide society, as illustrated by Rusty-James's discomfort when realizing he and Steve were the only white boys in a black bar.

In global politics, the United States and the Soviet Union were superpowers, each wielding influence or control over large parts of the world. The two nations viewed each other with suspicion, unease, and constant wariness, a situation referred to as the "Cold War." The conflict between communism and American democracy weighed heavily on people's minds, with the ever-present fear that any open war between the two powers could lead to nuclear annihilation. This tension was slightly alleviated in 1975 by the symbolic docking of the Soviet Soyuz and the American Apollo spacecraft while in orbit.

Economically, the United States faced a severe recession from about 1973 to 1975, largely due to rising oil prices. This recession marked the most significant contraction of industrial production since the Great Depression and had widespread effects on employment and public sentiment across the country.

Culturally, the options for entertainment and connecting with others were far more limited than they are today. Most cities had only a few television stations, unlike the dozens or hundreds of cable channels available now. Videogames, video players, personal computers, e-mail, and the Internet did not exist; even handheld calculators were considered an expensive novelty.

Set in the late 1960s or early 1970s, Rumble Fish—like all of Hinton's novels—takes place in a southwestern city that the author never explicitly names in the text but has identified as her native Tulsa, Oklahoma. The characters in Rumble Fish are constrained by their environment. They reside on the "wrong side" of the river and rarely, if ever, venture beyond the city limits. Hinton draws parallels between the desolation of her characters' psychological states and the darkness of their physical surroundings. Most of the story unfolds at night, with the few daytime scenes occurring mainly indoors, in pool halls or dimly lit rooms.

The river that divides the city separates the characters in Rumble Fish from "bright lights" and bustling crowds. When the Motorcycle Boy leads Rusty-James and his friend Steve Hays on a journey across the river, Hinton contrasts the dizzying whirl of activity they encounter with the threatening, dark world they leave behind. However, Hinton implies that even though Rusty-James has some physical mobility, he will never be able to cross certain boundaries. Essentially estranged from his physical environment, Rusty-James resembles his brother, who, when asked about a trip to California, sarcastically replies, "It was one laugh after another. Even better than here, as amusing as this place is." And although the book begins and ends with Rusty-James sitting on a beach, far from the inner city, it is evident that he has become oblivious to his surroundings and thus remains profoundly alone.

First-Person Narrative
The book is narrated in the first person from Rusty-James's perspective, allowing readers to experience events solely through his eyes. This narrative choice raises intriguing questions about Rusty-James's perception and the reliability of his viewpoint. For instance, it remains uncertain whether his doubts about certain adults are justified. He is skeptical of Cassandra and her intentions, mistrusting her because she abandoned her affluent family to live in his rough neighborhood and follow his brother. Similarly, he is wary of Coach Ryan simply because Ryan is friendly toward him. While it's evident that both Coach Ryan and Cassandra have their own issues and agendas, readers might question whether they are as negative or insincere as Rusty-James believes. In addition, the one-sided portrayal of events from Rusty-James's angle is poignant, as readers may notice the flaws and gaps in his reasoning that he himself overlooks. He aspires more than anything to be like his brother, but from the reader's perspective, this goal is questionable: his brother has achieved nothing, is aimless, and has lost both his color vision and hearing due to poor judgment. Although the Motorcycle Boy is seemingly a natural leader, it is clear that he will never harness this talent for anything constructive because he is so emotionally scarred. Rusty-James remains oblivious to this sad reality. Despite appearing mature in many other aspects, his unwavering admiration for his brother makes him seem much younger than his fourteen years.

Use of Slang
The book is written in a tough, casual style, reflecting how Rusty-James would speak, but it avoids curse words. While it might seem unrealistic that the characters wouldn't curse, Hinton had to imply such language to ensure the book's suitability for a young-adult audience. For example, Rusty-James says, "I said something to her I wouldn't normally say to a chick, but she really got on my nerves. She didn't flinch." Additionally, Hinton generally avoids using slang that would date the book unnecessarily. Although it was written in 1975, most of the dialogue could still appear in a contemporary book without attracting attention. The few exceptions are primarily street names for drugs—bennies, sneaky pete, horse—which tend to evolve quickly.

While Hinton's other novels are straightforward tales of adolescent life, built around conflict and confrontation, Rumble Fish offers a concentrated structure of images. This creates a dreamlike atmosphere that mirrors the central character's confusion and despair. As Rusty-James drifts from reality, his memory becomes the elusive perspective from which the reader must discern what truly happened. His increasingly selective recollection makes this perspective unreliable. Despite his forgetfulness and skewed perceptions, Rusty-James strives to be honest. His naive narration generates dramatic irony: readers grasp what is happening to him more clearly than Rusty-James does himself.

This looming sense of doom greatly enhances the novel's tone and color. The characters' inability to escape their fates echoes elements of Greek tragedy. Classical tragedies center on a heroic figure who tries to avoid destiny but, due to a character "flaw," cannot control the future. This literary tradition resonates in Rumble Fish, elevating it beyond the typical young adult novel. The Motorcycle Boy's color blindness recalls the tragic figure of Sophocles' King Oedipus, who blinds himself after unknowingly fulfilling a prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother. The Motorcycle Boy's effort to free the fighting fish defies nature, reminiscent of Prometheus, who risked destruction by defying the gods to give fire to humanity. Cassandra, the Motorcycle Boy's drug-addicted girlfriend, shares with her mythological namesake the ability to foresee the future and the frustration of being disbelieved.

Hinton's symbolism is intricate and intense. Her theme emphasizes biological necessity, equating physical traits with spiritual characteristics. Hinton uses color blindness to symbolize disenchantment and grim reality, and blurred vision to highlight Rusty-James's confused perceptions and motives. Initially, Rusty-James seems to enjoy colors. However, when the Motorcycle Boy is killed by the police, Rusty-James temporarily loses his ability to see color, symbolizing the loss of his youthful illusions.

Equally significant to the novel's symbolic structure are the references to animals, another aspect of Hinton's biological determinism. Each major character is linked with an animal that matches their nature. The Motorcycle Boy is likened to a panther: dangerous, aloof, and adept at blending into his surroundings. Steve, often contrasted with Rusty-James, is compared to a rabbit: sensitive to his environment and easily preyed upon. Rusty-James is associated with a dog: affectionate, trusting, and obedient, but also with the fighting fish that attack blindly.

Ultimately, since the environment significantly influences human destiny, Hinton employs the river and the ocean to illustrate how Rusty-James and his brother are tied to their surroundings. The river delineates their territory from the rest of the city, isolating them from most of society. The Motorcycle Boy travels to California but never glimpses the ocean, and when Rusty-James finally sees the ocean, he is merely a shadow of his former self.

Hinton's novels have consistently faced criticism from those who believe that works like Rumble Fish idealize unlawful behavior and celebrate rebellion. Additionally, some critics denounce the persistent focus on violence. It is undeniable that Rusty-James's life revolves around antisocial activities. The novel includes instances of drinking binges, drug use, sexual encounters, truancy, and casual violence. At one point, a teacher even offers to pay Rusty-James to assault another student. Hinton's goal is to portray Rusty-James's decline, making it clear that his lifestyle is ultimately self-destructive. Despite this intention, Hinton does not shy away from details, and perhaps the most unsettling aspect is the exhilaration Rusty-James experiences from his violent actions.

1970s: The majority of gang members are aged between twelve and twenty-one, with female involvement in gang violence being uncommon.

Today: Gang members can range in age from nine to thirty. Although males still significantly outnumber females by a ratio of fifteen to one, the presence of young women in gangs is on the rise.

1970s: Gang violence primarily involves basic weapons like knives and chains, with confrontations occurring face-to-face.

Today: Gang members may use advanced firearms such as AK-47s or Uzis, and drive-by shootings have become more common than physical brawls in vacant lots.

1970s: High school dropout rates include fifteen percent for white students and twenty-six percent for African American students.

Today: High school dropout rates have decreased to four percent for white students and seven percent for African American students. Reasons cited for dropping out include "didn't like it," failing, job-related issues, and pregnancy.

1970s: Less than half of the states in the U.S. and around one hundred counties within those states report incidents of gang violence.

Today: All states, including the District of Columbia, and twelve hundred counties report occurrences of gang violence.

The Outsiders, published while Hinton was still in high school, kicks off a series of novels exploring the conflicts teenagers face with each other and with society. The series includes That Was Then, This Is Now, Rumble Fish, and Tex. Although Rumble Fish, which focuses on a single character, represents a shift in style and focus, Hinton's stories are confined to a specific time and place: Oklahoma in the 1960s or early 1970s.

The film adaptations of Tex, The Outsiders, and Rumble Fish all featured the popular young actor Matt Dillon and received critical acclaim. Directed by Tim Hunter, Tex (1982) was the first of Hinton's novels to be adapted into a film. Renowned director Francis Ford Coppola directed both The Outsiders and Rumble Fish in 1983, with the latter filmed in black and white to emphasize the theme of color blindness. The film version of Rumble Fish starred Mickey Rourke, Diane Lane, and Dennis Hopper, in addition to Dillon. These three movies showcased an impressive array of young talent, including Emilio Estevez, Nicolas Cage, Rob Lowe, Ralph Macchio, Vincent Spano, Patrick Swayze, and Tom Cruise. That Was Then, This Is Now was adapted into a film in 1985.

Rumble Fish was adapted into a film in 1983 by Francis Ford Coppola, featuring Matt Dillon as Rusty-James and Mickey Rourke as the Motorcycle Boy. The cast also included Dennis Hopper, Tom Waits, and Nicolas Cage. Hinton made a brief appearance in the film and worked with Coppola on the screenplay.

The novel was originally adapted into a record and cassette by Viking in 1977.

Another audio recording was created by Recorded Books LLC in 1985.

Daly, Jay. Presenting S. E. Hinton. New York: Twayne, 1987. This book offers an in-depth analysis of Hinton and her literary contributions. Daly identifies her as a pioneering figure in what he calls the "New Realism."

DeMarr, Jean, and Jane S. Bakerman. The Adolescent in the American Novel Since 1960. New York: Ungar, 1986. Provides brief insights into Hinton's protagonists and how they mirror the time period.

Donelson, Kenneth, and Aileen P. Nilsen. Literature for Today's Young Adults. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1980. Includes an assessment of Hinton as an emerging author in adolescent fiction.

Egoff, Sheila. Thursday's Child. Chicago: American Library Association, 1981. Features brief comments on Hinton's impact on young adult literature.

Lenz, Millicent, and Ramona M. Mahood. Young Adult Literature. Chicago: American Library Association, 1980. Categorizes Hinton among the new voices in young adult fiction.

Senick, Gerard. Children's Literature Review. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale Research, 1978. Offers brief remarks on Hinton's focus on social class issues.

Stanek, Lou W. A Teacher's Guide to Paperback Editions of the Novels of S. E. Hinton. New York: Dell, 1980. A resource designed to assist teachers in framing questions and evaluating the literary style of Hinton's novels.

Sutherland, Zena. The Best in Children's Books. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. Provides a short commentary on Hinton's career achievements.

"Teens Are For Real." New York Times Book Review (August 27, 1967): 29. Discusses the realistic approach to young adult novels, as exemplified by Hinton.

Varlejs, Jana. Young Adult Literature in the 1970s. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1978. Offers an intriguing evaluation of Hinton's writing styles and themes.

Sources
Abramson, Jane, Review of Rumble Fish, in School Library Journal, October 1975, p. 106.

Chaston, Joel D., "Hinton, S(usan) E(loise)," in St. James Guide to Young Adult Writers, 2nd ed., edited by Tom Pendergast and Sara Pendergast, St. James Press, 1999, pp. 376-78.

Daly, Jay, Presenting S. E. Hinton, Twayne, 1987.

Fisher, Margery, Review of Rumble Fish, in Growing Point, May 1976, p. 289.

Hinton, S. E., Rumble Fish Production Notes, No Weather Films, 1993.

Hinton, S. E., and Lisa Ehrlich, "Advice from a Penwoman," in Seventeen, November 1981, p. 32.

Malone, Michael, "Tough Puppies," in Nation, March 8, 1986, pp. 276-80.

Powell, Jane, "Urban Guerrillas," in Times Literary Supplement, October 30, 1970, p. 125.

Review of Rumble Fish, in Publishers Weekly, July 28, 1975, p. 122.

Further Reading
Corliss, Richard, "Rumble Fish," Film review, in Time, October 24, 1983, p. 90.
Corliss reviews the Francis Ford Coppola film adaptation of the novel.

de Montreville, Doris, and Elizabeth J. Crawford, eds., Fourth Book of Junior Authors, H. W. Wilson, 1978.
This reference book explores Hinton's life and early works.

Lyons, Gene, "On Tulsa's Mean Streets," in Newsweek, October 11, 1982, p. 105.
Lyons examines the city where Hinton grew up and its presence in her fiction.

Silvey, Anita, Review of Rumble Fish, in Horn Book, November—December 1975, p. 601.
Silvey offers a review and analysis of Hinton's book.

Stanek, Lou Willett, A Teacher's Guide to the Paperback Editions of the Novels of S. E. Hinton, Dell, 1980.
This guide provides a teacher's perspective on Hinton's novels.

Sutherland, Zena, "The Teen-Speaks," in Saturday Review, January 27, 1968, p. 34.
Sutherland discusses Hinton's portrayal of teenagers in this article.