The early 1970s was a turbulent era marked by cultural shifts, social upheaval, and geopolitical tensions that shaped the backdrop to S.E. Hinton's Rumble Fish, written during this transformative period. The Vietnam War was a dominant force, polarizing Americans and leaving deep scars that extended beyond the battlefield. Concurrently, societal changes such as the rise of drug use, ongoing civil rights struggles, and economic challenges influenced American life and thought.

The Vietnam War and Its Aftermath

By the early 1970s, the Vietnam War had become a focal point of national conflict, with Americans deeply divided over the merits and morality of the war. In 1973, the U.S. withdrew its last troops, but not before the conflict had profoundly affected American society. The war's human toll was staggering, with 3 million soldiers participating, 58,000 killed, and countless others left missing or wounded. The psychological impact extended far beyond the veterans, affecting families and communities across the nation.

Cultural Shifts and Social Issues

As the war cast its shadow, other social issues also emerged prominently. The 1960s had ushered in a wave of drug experimentation that continued into the 1970s, transcending social boundaries. Even First Lady Betty Ford acknowledged in 1975 that her children had likely experimented with marijuana. Additionally, the Civil Rights and feminist movements pushed for equal rights, but progress was uneven. For many women and minorities, societal change was slow, often leaving them still defined by traditional roles or facing racial tensions, much like the characters in Rumble Fish.

The Cold War and Economic Challenges

Internationally, the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union defined geopolitical relations, with both nations maintaining a wary coexistence. The fear of communist expansion and nuclear conflict loomed large, though the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project symbolized a rare moment of cooperation. Domestically, the economic landscape was also shifting. From 1973 to 1975, the U.S. faced a severe recession, driven by soaring oil prices, which resulted in significant job losses and altered public attitudes toward the future.

Cultural and Technological Landscape

In the realm of cultural and technological advancements, the options available were limited compared to modern standards. Entertainment largely consisted of the few television channels available in any given city, a stark contrast to today's plethora of digital options. Personal computers, video games, and the Internet were non-existent, and even handheld calculators were luxury items, highlighting the vast differences in how people interacted and entertained themselves compared to today.

Critiques of Rumble Fish

S.E. Hinton’s Rumble Fish has sparked debate among critics, some of whom argue that the novel romanticizes delinquency and glorifies rebellion, while others point to its raw portrayal of violence. The protagonist, Rusty-James, epitomizes this chaotic world through his engagement in antisocial behaviors such as drinking, drug use, and violence. A pivotal moment in the story involves a teacher offering Rusty-James money to assault another student, illustrating the normalization of violence in his environment. Hinton crafts a narrative that showcases Rusty-James's downward spiral, emphasizing the destructive nature of his lifestyle, yet she does not shy away from depicting the allure and adrenaline associated with violence.

Set in the late 1960s or early 1970s, Rumble Fish—like all of Hinton's novels—takes place in a southwestern city that the author never explicitly names in the text but has identified as her native Tulsa, Oklahoma. The characters in Rumble Fish are constrained by their environment. They reside on the "wrong side" of the river and rarely, if ever, venture beyond the city limits. Hinton draws parallels between the desolation of her characters' psychological states and the darkness of their physical surroundings. Most of the story unfolds at night, with the few daytime scenes occurring mainly indoors, in pool halls or dimly lit rooms.

The river that divides the city separates the characters in Rumble Fish from "bright lights" and bustling crowds. When the Motorcycle Boy leads Rusty-James and his friend Steve Hays on a journey across the river, Hinton contrasts the dizzying whirl of activity they encounter with the threatening, dark world they leave behind. However, Hinton implies that even though Rusty-James has some physical mobility, he will never be able to cross certain boundaries. Essentially estranged from his physical environment, Rusty-James resembles his brother, who, when asked about a trip to California, sarcastically replies, "It was one laugh after another. Even better than here, as amusing as this place is." And although the book begins and ends with Rusty-James sitting on a beach, far from the inner city, it is evident that he has become oblivious to his surroundings and thus remains profoundly alone.

S.E. Hinton's Rumble Fish diverges from her other works through its unique narrative style and intricate symbolism, creating a dreamlike atmosphere that mirrors the turmoil of its protagonist, Rusty-James. The novel’s structure, primarily composed of vivid imagery, allows readers to delve deep into the character's internal conflict and confusion. As Rusty-James drifts away from reality, his perspective, clouded by selective memories, challenges readers to discern the truth while navigating his naive honesty, which often results in dramatic irony.

Tragic Undertones and Greek Influences

The novel's tone, imbued with a sense of inevitable doom, resonates with the themes of Greek tragedy. Central characters, unable to escape their fates, echo the struggles of ancient tragic heroes. Rusty-James’ brother, the Motorcycle Boy, is reminiscent of figures like Sophocles' Oedipus, whose blindness serves as a metaphor for ignorance and fate. Similarly, the Motorcycle Boy's attempts to liberate the fighting fish parallel the myth of Prometheus, suggesting a defiance of nature and destiny. The character of Cassandra, the Motorcycle Boy's girlfriend, embodies her mythological counterpart's foresight and frustration, further enriching the narrative with classical allusions.

Symbolism and Biological Determinism

Hinton intricately weaves symbolism throughout the novel, emphasizing biological determinism by linking physical traits to spiritual and emotional states. Color blindness serves as a metaphor for disenchantment and harsh reality, while blurred vision highlights Rusty-James’s muddled perceptions and motivations. In the early chapters, Rusty-James's appreciation of colors reflects his naive outlook. However, this changes dramatically when the Motorcycle Boy's death strips Rusty-James of his ability to perceive color, symbolizing the shattering of his youthful illusions.

Animal Associations and Character Traits

Animal imagery is central to Hinton’s exploration of her characters' natures and destinies. Each character aligns with an animal that mirrors their inherent traits. The Motorcycle Boy resembles a panther, elusive and menacing, seamlessly blending into his environment. Steve, the contrast to Rusty-James, is likened to a rabbit, attuned to his surroundings and vulnerable. Rusty-James himself is compared to a dog, characterized by loyalty and simplicity, yet he also embodies the fighting fish, aggressive and impulsive.

Environmental Influences on Destiny

Hinton also examines how environment shapes human destiny, using natural elements like rivers and oceans as metaphors. The river delineates the brothers’ world from the rest of society, confining them within their socio-economic boundaries. While the Motorcycle Boy ventures to California, he never witnesses the ocean, a symbol of broader horizons and unfulfilled potential. When Rusty-James finally encounters the ocean, it marks a poignant moment of reflection and loss, illustrating how the environment inevitably confines and defines them.

1970s: The majority of gang members are aged between twelve and twenty-one, with female involvement in gang violence being uncommon.

Today: Gang members can range in age from nine to thirty. Although males still significantly outnumber females by a ratio of fifteen to one, the presence of young women in gangs is on the rise.

1970s: Gang violence primarily involves basic weapons like knives and chains, with confrontations occurring face-to-face.

Today: Gang members may use advanced firearms such as AK-47s or Uzis, and drive-by shootings have become more common than physical brawls in vacant lots.

1970s: High school dropout rates include fifteen percent for white students and twenty-six percent for African American students.

Today: High school dropout rates have decreased to four percent for white students and seven percent for African American students. Reasons cited for dropping out include "didn't like it," failing, job-related issues, and pregnancy.

1970s: Less than half of the states in the U.S. and around one hundred counties within those states report incidents of gang violence.

Today: All states, including the District of Columbia, and twelve hundred counties report occurrences of gang violence.

• Rumble Fish (1983) - Directed by Francis Ford Coppola, screenplay co-written by S.E. Hinton and Francis Ford Coppola. The film starred Matt Dillon as Rusty-James and Mickey Rourke as the Motorcycle Boy, with Dennis Hopper, Diane Lane, Tom Waits, Nicolas Cage, and S.E. Hinton making a brief appearance. The film was shot in black and white to emphasize color blindness themes. Notable young actors in Hinton films include Emilio Estevez, Rob Lowe, Ralph Macchio, Vincent Spano, Patrick Swayze, and Tom Cruise.
• Tex (1982) - Directed by Tim Hunter. This film starred Matt Dillon and was the first of S.E. Hinton's works to be adapted to the screen. The film received critical acclaim for showcasing young talent.
• The Outsiders (1983) - Directed by Francis Ford Coppola. This adaptation starred an ensemble cast of young actors including Matt Dillon, Emilio Estevez, Rob Lowe, Ralph Macchio, Vincent Spano, Patrick Swayze, and Tom Cruise.
• That Was Then, This Is Now (1985) - This work was adapted to the screen, continuing Hinton's exploration of teenage conflicts.
• Rumble Fish Recording (1977) - Adapted as a record and cassette by Viking.
• Rumble Fish Audiobook (1985) - Produced by Recorded Books LLC.

• Abramson, Jane. Review of Rumble Fish, in School Library Journal, October 1975, p. 106.
• Chaston, Joel D. "Hinton, S(usan) E(loise)," in St. James Guide to Young Adult Writers, 2nd ed., edited by Tom Pendergast and Sara Pendergast, St. James Press, 1999, pp. 376-78.
• Corliss, Richard. "Rumble Fish," Film review, in Time, October 24, 1983, p. 90. Corliss reviews the Francis Ford Coppola film version of the novel.
• Daly, Jay. Presenting S. E. Hinton. New York: Twayne, 1987. A comprehensive study of Hinton and her work. Daly finds her to be a ground-breaking figure in what he terms the "New Realism."
• Daly, Jay. Presenting S. E. Hinton, Twayne, 1987.
• DeMarr, Jean, and Jane S. Bakerman. The Adolescent in the American Novel Since 1960. New York: Ungar, 1986. Brief comments on Hinton's protagonists as they reflect the era.
• de Montreville, Doris, and Elizabeth J. Crawford, eds. Fourth Book of Junior Authors, H. W. Wilson, 1978. This reference work examines Hinton's life and early work.
• Donelson, Kenneth, and Aileen P. Nilsen. Literature for Today's Young Adults. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1980. Contains an evaluation of Hinton as a "new" writer of adolescent fiction.
• Egoff, Sheila. Thursday's Child. Chicago: American Library Association, 1981. Contains brief comments on Hinton's contribution to young adult fiction.
• Fisher, Margery. Review of Rumble Fish, in Growing Point, May 1976, p. 289.
• Hinton, S. E. Rumble Fish Production Notes, No Weather Films, 1993.
• Hinton, S. E., and Lisa Ehrlich. "Advice from a Penwoman," in Seventeen, November 1981, p. 32.
• Lenz, Millicent, and Ramona M. Mahood. Young Adult Literature. Chicago: American Library Association, 1980. Classifies Hinton with the new voices in young adult literature.
• Lyons, Gene. "On Tulsa's Mean Streets," in Newsweek, October 11, 1982, p. 105. Lyons takes a look at the city where Hinton grew up and how it appears in her fiction.
• Malone, Michael. "Tough Puppies," in Nation, March 8, 1986, pp. 276-80.
• Powell, Jane. "Urban Guerrillas," in Times Literary Supplement, October 30, 1970, p. 125.
• Review of Rumble Fish, in Publishers Weekly, July 28, 1975, p. 122.
• Senick, Gerard. Children's Literature Review. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale Research, 1978. Brief remarks on Hinton's interest in social classes.
• Silvey, Anita. Review of Rumble Fish, in Horn Book, November—December 1975, p. 601. Silvey provides a review and discussion of Hinton's book.
• Stanek, Lou W. A Teacher's Guide to Paperback Editions of the Novels of S. E. Hinton. New York: Dell, 1980. A guide to help teachers pose questions and evaluate the literary style of the novels.
• Stanek, Lou Willett. A Teacher's Guide to the Paperback Editions of the Novels of S. E. Hinton, Dell, 1980. This guide examines Hinton's novels from a teacher's perspective.
• Sutherland, Zena. The Best in Children's Books. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. Contains a short commentary on Hinton's career.
• Sutherland, Zena. "The Teen-Speaks," in Saturday Review, January 27, 1968, p. 34. Sutherland examines Hinton's depiction of teenagers in this article.
• "Teens Are For Real." New York Times Book Review (August 27, 1967): 29. A discussion of the realistic approach to young adult novels as typified by Hinton.
• Varlejs, Jana. Young Adult Literature in the 1970s. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1978. An interesting evaluation of Hinton's styles and themes.