SOURCE: Sharma, S. T. “Kipling's India: A Study of Some Short Stories.” Literary Criterion 22, no. 4 (1987): 54-61.

[In the following essay, Sharma explores Kipling's identification with India as expressed in the four short stories collected in The Day's Work: “The Maltese Cat,” “William the Conqueror,” “The Tomb of His Ancestors,” and “The Bridge Builders.”]

The question of Kipling's identification with India becomes relevant in view of the fact that Kipling spent his apprentice years in India and emerged on the literary scene as a major Anglo-Indian writer. It is equally interesting because Kipling spent his early years in India accepting its pattern of life, and that too at a time when there was a general opinion that to adopt to Indian conditions was to conform to an inferior standard.

The life pattern of Kipling also indicates a constant displacement which forced him to commit himself to a new home whether it be British India or Vermont or Sussex. Each time the commitment was sudden and wholehearted. No wonder then when he came to India he soon discovered that he had a proprietary and hereditary claim to the soil and once remarked “My English years fell away, nor ever, I think, came back in full strength”.¹

The political condition of India was complex when Kipling arrived. There were two major forces at work. There was the pressure of the Indians towards national unification and self-government and an equal pressure of the English national conscience towards more efficient and beneficient government of the Indians. Kipling was exposed not only to this land but also a land with its bewildering variety of people, rich cultural traditions, social organisations, intellectual achievements, speculative thoughts, emotional and aesthetic achievements in art forms and spiritual achievements. Above all there were the metaphysical truths of Indian philosophy stamped on the general mind of the people. If an Englishman came to India just as a visitor he could probably criticize objectively the British India. But once a man committed himself to the Anglo-Indian endeavour as did Kipling, he found that the process had determined for him a way of thinking and acting. He realised the potential value of British India as a subject for fiction and like Conrad wrote from direct observation. Whether or not he achieved unqualified success as a novelist, the best part of his writing certainly is preserved in his short stories.

When a major British writer publishes a collection of stories based on Indian life it is an event worthy of consideration. As the approaches to criticism of the short story are manifold, there are structural, textual, social and political elements that need examination. One useful approach would be to look for relevance and study the overall impact of the story at this distance of time. Especially in Kipling whose fictional mode is suffused with the inner springs of Indian culture and tradition a few stories tend to become highly philosophical on account of his genuinely religious and moral involvement in Indian consciousness. Deeply influenced by the national character of India Kipling identifies himself with the verious aspects of Indian life. A brief analysis of the four Indian stories in The Day's Work will substantiate the point.

‘The Maltese Cat’ is more or less a fable written in the manner of the Panchatantra stories. It contains an unusual characterisation and the entire narration is from the point of view of horses. The story is more like a running commentary on the polo game played by the two teams. The Archangels and The Skidars. The European game is played on the Indian soil with fine and costly horses of a superior breed on one side and cheap ponies gathered ‘often from the country carts’ on the other side. The central figure is the Maltese Cat, an ageing pony who was once drawing vegetable carts. But he is endowed with extraordinary qualities of leadership. When the spirit of competition mounts to a tension the Maltese Cat directs the movements, exhorts his companions and wins the game. The antithesis between the two teams is beautifully worked out and the conversation among the horses reminds us of the story telling device of the Panchatantra. Animal passions are expressed in the human form. The horses of the ordinary breed prove to be more than a match for their counterparts. The central symbolism is a veritable pointer to the political context. The whole action and its larger resonances revolve around the idea of leadership and unity. Behind a simplistic and apparently sportive game is the Westerner's positive assessment of the potentials of the Indian soil. The characters inhabiting the fictional milieu may be animals but their capacities prepare the ground for what the men could achieve.

‘William the Conqueror’ is a tender love story in which two hearts are drawn to each other in the Madras State which is in the grip of a famine. Probably the famine of the Dhathu Varsha must have had its terrible impact on Kipling during his stay in India. What begins as a social history mellows into a subdued, unobtrusive and silent love story. Scott, a military officer, is sent to a famine-hit area in Madras for relief work and William is the sister of his colleague Martyn. The lovers are Western and the birth of their love is on the Indian soil where values of life are different. Forgoing all her comforts William works in the relief camps and takes charge of the starving children. In Scott we find the apparent disregard for finer sentiments since he supervises over the relief measures like a man possessed. Nor does William articulate her feelings and practically all the conversation between them is about relief work. It is only towards the end that we find them dancing at a party and William wipes tears from her eyes. There is no formal proposal or engagement nor a passionate declaration though Scott had danced with her several times. Their love has the fragrance of an Indian rose, tender, beautiful and yet sacred. William knows how to restrain herself, how to hide her feelings. It is in the ‘land of death’ that love is born and what could have become a romantic tale becomes a sacred relationship. Kipling plants the sapling of European love in the Indian soil, waters it with unspoken gestures, manures it with toil and human sympathy and love blossoms with a typical Indian fragrance.

Based on the Hindu belief of rebirth ‘The Tomb of His Ancestors’ is a story that covers three generations of a single family with John Chinn as the central figure supposed to be the reborn grandfather, John Chinn. The Chinns had served India generation after generation. The grandson also comes to Central India, the place where the old Chinn had served. He serves a culturally primitive race known as the Bhils and the people adore him for ‘He's a Pukka Chinn’. He identifies himself with the tribal people and establishes a wonderful relationship with them. He knows the life style of the Bhils, their manners, culture, beliefs and superstitions. There is a pattern about the behaviour of the Chinns and in line with his ancestors whom young Chinn not merely resembles physically but also in his behaviour, young Chinn wields his power with a threat and a smile. The people's faith in the theory of rebirth is reinforced. Like his great ancestor he infuses confidence in the people, cleverly gets them vaccinated, a thing which they had resisted for years. This he could achieve only when he admonishes them from the tomb of his ancestors and the people believe that it is the voice of old Chinn. He walks on foot to kill the menacing tiger and establishes his leadership. The British Officer comes to serve in a place where values and beliefs are different. He knows that to disturb these values which have been strengthened by centuries of moral, religious injunctions would only amount to inviting trouble. Still he is able to sensitize a race to a new line of acceptance. This he could achieve because of his cultural and emotional identification with the people. Instead of attempting to define what should be India the author understands what is India.

‘The Bridge-builders’ is a complex story with various strands of experience woven in its texture. With a sensitive and informed mind Kipling displays a deeper understanding of the social, and political problems of India. The spiritual tradition of India serves as a huge backdrop for the story.

Findlayson undertakes the responsibility of building the great Kashi Bridge over the Gunga. Assisted by Hitchcock and the Indian lascar Peroo, he almost completes his task when heavy floods arrive in the Gunga. Findlayson is terribly upset when the racing water threatens the piers. Induced by Peroo he takes a few pellets of opium to alleviate his fever and tension and falls into a reverie. He sees a synod of Indian gods who try to appease Mother Gunga. When all discussions fail Lord Krishna appears on the scene and consoles Mother Gunga. Findlayson recovers himself to see the flood under control.

What is significant in the story is the second half, the reverie in which the Panchayat of the gods is presented. Details relating to Indian mythology, religion and philosophy are presented to the minutest detail. The gods appear in the animal form starting with The Bull (Lord Shiva), The Ape (Hanuman), The Elephant (Lord Ganesa), The Tigress (Kali Matha), The Ass (Sitala Matha, goddess of small pox), and The Black Buck (Indira). There is also a drunken Man representing Kala Bhairava, and a green parrot representing Karma. The Mugger of the Ganges is Gunga Matha who is grieved over the ‘shrinking of her waters.’

The Synod is divided into two apparently irreconcilable camps, each preparing to fling itself on the other and the strife does not get resolved. The arrival of Lord Krishna climaxing their discussion seems to be the most fascinating and final answer to the problem presented. It is not a Krishna who exhorts an Arjuna to a war path but a lovable Lord characterised by mellowed music, soft towards all creatures, from a blade of grass to animals, birds, men and women. Krishna is the avatar of Brahman as he himself says.

“… I alone of us all walk upon the earth continually and have no pleasure in our heavens … but ye live far off, forgetting from whence ye came. So I do not forget”.²

The assembly needs his presence and He answers all the doubts of the lesser gods, dispels their fear, avoids destruction and establishes peace and bliss.

This philosophical background is closely related to the political context. The East India Company which came to India for trade slowly took over the administration of the land. It began to transform the modes and thoughts of the nation in terms of its own parameters, at the same time when its environment was improved. Though a section of the land was fascinated by the British way of life there were still men at the lower level whose acceptance of the British supremacy did not clash with their native faith. Hence Kipling characterises Peroo the lascar, a nondescript, as the representative of the Indian conscience. It is he who first raises doubts over the successful completion of the bridge:

“What think you Mother Gunga will say when the rail runs over”?³

Findlayson is sceptical and remarks,

“She has said little so far.”⁴

Peroo comments:

“There is always time for her.”⁵

Peroo is a commoner who believes that Nature in India is the deputy of god. Though he has travelled far and wide he believes in the Gunga:

London is London, Saheb, Sydney is Sydney, and Port Darwin is Port Darwin. Also Mother Gunga is Mother Gunga, and when I come back to her banks I know this and worship.⁶

The opposition to British rule was gradually taking shape and if the revolutionaries took a destructive attitude it would damage all the benefits attained. The bridge across the Ganges would not only ‘shrink the waters’ but also provide improved means of transport. It is at this point that the story releases a tremendous symbol. The title suggests building a bridge between Britain and India, between Western and Eastern cultures and explores the age old Indian philosophy and its relevance to the modern context.

Mother Gunga represents Mother India and her complaint against the construction of the bridge represents the revolt against the British authority. Kali Matha symbolising the reactionaries favours the idea of destruction while the lesser gods like Ganesa (of Good Luck) representing the traders and the common folk remain confused. It is at this crucial moment that Lord Krishna appears and tells Gunga:

Mother, get thee to thy flood again. The matter is not for thee, what harm shall thy honour take of this live dirt? Thou has given them their fields new year after year, and by thy flood they are made strong. They come all to thee at the last. What need to slay them now? Have pity, mother, for a little—and it is only for a little.⁷

The Gunga is a little disconsolate. Krishna makes a final appeal.

‘Be certain that it is only for a little. The Heavenly ones have heard thee, and presently justice will be done. Go now, mother, to the Flood again’.⁸

Gunga repeats

‘But the bridge—the bridge stands’.⁹

Krishna understands the futility of her wrath and says.

‘And when all is done, what profit? Tomorrow sees them at work. Ay, if ye swept the bridge out from end to end they would build anew’.¹⁰

The final in junction comes now.

‘It is but a little time to wait, and you shall know if I lie’.¹¹

This dialogue seems to suggest that the bridge across the Ganges is only a temporary bridge or rather, the British sway in India would not last long. Even half a century before India attained independence Kipling had a prophetic vision of its becoming free. As one who had rightly understood the Indian philosophy Kipling lays emphasis on the basic principle of the Indian tradition that India, said to be a secular state, does not reject the reality of its own faith and no nation can arrogate to itself the rights and privileges of another nation which are not legitimately its own. The concept of the Flood and its fury is the mahapralaya which means creation—destruction and creation again. Even in destruction ‘Karma’ does not die and so the parrot is with Krishna. Every time destruction occurs a new ‘Kalpa’ begins and a fresh cycle of creation and construction begins. People live and die. The change is only in names.

‘Beloved, they will do no more than change the names, and that we have seen a thousand times’.¹²

This philosophical awareness of the Infinite has given Kipling a better understanding of the political change in India. It amounts to saying that even after a series of invasions and conquests the under-current of values and faiths still persists. The story is more or less a requiem for the British Raj in India and that could come from Kipling because of his identification with the precious Indian heritage which defines the passing of events. An Indian has to value this significant awareness and its persistent manifestation through the centuries for promoting an increase in the national consciousness.

Taking the four stories together it is possible to notice some common identifiable features which give fresh insights into the author's identification with India. The four stories have a common locale namely, British India, whether it is Upper India (‘The Maltese Cat’) or Madras State (‘William the Conqueror’) or Central India (‘The Tomb of the Ancestors’) or Kashi (‘The Bridge-builders’). In all these stories there is a British contribution in the form of a polo game, or famine relief work, or service to a primitive community or the construction of a bridger. There is a British commitment to the work undertaken and the protagonists are engaged in a quest not so much for the inner truth about themselves as for a place in the social or professional world to which their talents are ideally suited. The conditions of life in India constantly test the physical and emotional stamina of the Britishers whether it is training ponies of an inferior breed, or carrying out relief measures against odds, or civilising a primitive community that wants to kill a vaccinator or constructing a bridge in spite of the lack of amenities and administrative red-tape. In all the four stories the Britishers never fail because of their adventurous grit. From one angle it looks like a portrait gallery of successful Britishers who served India. But one must also take into account that the protagonists are led only by the Indian characters, be it an inferior pony, or an Indianised William, or the Indian servant Bukta or Peroo the lascar. The pony displays wonderful qualifies of leadership, love takes a sacred form, the theory of rebirth is respected and above all Advaita philosophy is affirmed to be the best solution to alleviate sorrow. All this points out to Kipling's great sense of awareness in Indian matters and it has been rightly pointed out that “I … British sndia produced no author with individual characteristic as striking with a vision of India as personal and coherent, as Kipling's”.¹³ When Kipling sailed from India in March 1889 he was “a returned Anglo-Indian, a homeless man who had left a vital part of himself in the East, a writer whose view of the world was inexorably conditioned by the land and the people amongst whom he had grown to maturity”.¹⁴

Notes

1. Louis L. Cornell, Kipling in India (New York: Macmillan, 1966), p. 44

2. Rudyard Kipling, ‘The Bridge-Builders’, The Day's Work (London: Macmillan, 1964), p. 39.

3. Ibid., p. 9.

4. Ibid., p. 9.

5. Ibid., p. 9.

6. Ibid., p. 10.

7. Ibid., p. 37.

8. Ibid., p. 37.

9. Ibid., p. 38.

10. Ibid., p. 38.

11. Ibid., p. 42.

12. Ibid., p. 41.

13. Louis L. Cornell, Kipling in India, p. 121.

14. Ibid., p. 165.