of magic realism inBlack American Prose Theory situates Roots alongside works like Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon, examining how storytelling aids in the quest for a liberating identity. This reflects the broader narrative of African American literature where storytelling becomes a tool for empowerment and self-discovery.

Legacy of Roots

Ultimately, Roots serves as a significant cultural artifact that continues to influence discussions on race, identity, and history. Howard F. Stein, writing in the Journal of Popular Culture, asserts that the dialogues sparked by Roots are essential for future race relations, recognizing the work’s role in both illuminating past injustices and shaping a more informed future.

Through its blend of historical re-creation and fictional narrative, Roots has left an indelible mark on both American literature and society, a testament to the enduring power of storytelling in bridging historical divides and fostering understanding.

"Roots: The Saga of an American Family" is a tapestry of interconnected locales, each of which plays a pivotal role in the unfolding narrative of Kunta Kinte and his descendants. From the vibrant village of Juffure in West Africa to the oppressive plantations of Virginia and North Carolina, and finally to the town of Henning, Tennessee, each setting encapsulates a unique aspect of the African American experience. These locations not only anchor the story but also offer rich insights into the cultural, social, and historical contexts that shaped the lives of the characters.

Juffure

The village of Juffure, nestled along the Gambia River in West Africa, serves as the starting point of Kunta Kinte’s journey. It is a place imbued with cultural heritage and familial connections that extend through generations. Alex Haley's visit to Juffure, centuries after his ancestor’s abduction, inspired a vivid reimagining of the village as it might have existed around 1750. Readers are transported to a time when Kunta was a young boy, encountering the daily life of a close-knit community. The village is characterized by its round thatched huts and communal fields where gender roles dictate the cultivation of crops. Bordering this idyllic setting is a forest where young boys, including Kunta, are initiated into the secrets of manhood. Juffure represents a world where identity is intertwined with heritage, tradition, and a sense of belonging—an echo of stability soon shattered by the horrors of enslavement.

The Lord Ligonier

The stark contrast to Juffure is found aboard the Lord Ligonier, the slave ship that transports Kunta Kinte across the Atlantic. In his quest to empathize with his ancestor’s experience, Haley undertook a journey aboard a modern freighter, yet even this could not capture the inhumane conditions endured by the enslaved. Cramped into the ship's dark hold, Kunta, along with countless others, faced unimaginable suffering. The journey marked the transition from a life of freedom to one of bondage, symbolizing the brutal severance from homeland and identity.

Spotsylvania

Upon arrival in America, Kunta finds himself in the harsh realities of Spotsylvania, Virginia. The county hosts two plantations that illustrate varying degrees of brutality. At the first, owned by John Waller, the conditions are harsh, characterized by dilapidated shacks and frequent beatings. Kunta's repeated attempts to escape only result in harsher punishments, reflecting the relentless cruelty of his captors. In contrast, Dr. William Waller’s plantation offers a semblance of humanity. Although still a place of bondage, the slaves experience a more orderly environment with clean cabins and a modicum of respect. However, the threat of being sold off to more brutal plantations looms, keeping the enslaved in constant fear and submission.

Caswell

The story continues in Caswell County, North Carolina, where Kunta’s daughter, Kizzy, is sold to Tom Lea, a man whose livelihood is steeped in the rough world of cockfighting. The transition from Dr. Waller’s plantation to Lea’s impoverished domain marks yet another stark shift in the narrative. Tom Lea's coarse demeanor and exploitative nature present a life far removed from the dignity Kizzy once knew. Her son, George, named “Chicken George” due to his prowess with gamecocks, becomes a symbol of resilience. Despite the oppressive circumstances, George's skill earns him freedom, highlighting the indomitable spirit that can rise even from the direst conditions. However, this freedom is bittersweet, as it does not extend to his family, who remain in bondage until the abolition of slavery.

Henning

After the Civil War, George and his family settle in Henning, Tennessee, a town emblematic of both progress and division. The racial lines in Henning are stark, with former slave owners and their descendants experiencing a tense coexistence. Yet, it is in Henning that George’s family finds an opportunity to rebuild and thrive, establishing themselves as tradesmen and entrepreneurs. It is a place of new beginnings, where Alex Haley himself would be born and later inspired to delve into his rich family history. The stories he heard in Henning set him on a path to uncover the truths behind his lineage, culminating in the writing of "Roots."

A Cultural Milestone

The emergence of Alex Haley’s Roots in 1976 marked a cultural milestone reminiscent of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Both works, while distinct in their narratives and eras, sparked national conversations and resonated deeply with the American public. Though both novels gained acclaim beyond their literary worth, their influence on the understanding of the black experience in America is undeniable, with Roots delivering a particular message that resonated within the black community.

Timeliness and Impact

The release of Roots coincided with the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement and a surge in black consciousness, enhancing its significance in the quest for black identity. As Haley’s work underscored the ongoing struggle for equality, it also highlighted the newfound affluence among black Americans. This novel ignited a widespread interest in black genealogy, prompting historians and genealogists to delve into overlooked archives and plantation records, thus unveiling neglected narratives of the past.

The Emergence of a Modern Griot

Alex Haley earned the mantle of a modern American griot, an esteemed storyteller and custodian of his people's history. His journey from a Coast Guard serviceman to a revered journalist and author culminated in the creation of Roots, a task funded by his previous work, including the acclaimed Autobiography of Malcolm X and a Reader’s Digest condensation. Haley’s dedication to exploring both African and American ancestral ties resulted in a profound narrative that encapsulates the African American heritage through the lens of his family’s history.

The African Beginning: Kunta Kinte

The saga begins with Kunta Kinte, Haley’s ancestor, born into the Mandinka tribe along the Gambia River. Haley vividly reconstructs the customs and traditions of 18th-century Mandinka life, offering a compelling narrative that challenges longstanding stereotypes of African societies. His portrayal of Kunta’s formative years is rich with cultural insights, presenting a nuanced depiction of an Africa characterized by strong family values and communal honor, a narrative that resonates with black Americans seeking connections to their ancestral roots.

The Horrors of the Middle Passage

Haley exposes the brutal realities of the transatlantic slave trade with unflinching honesty. His descriptions of the slave-catching raids, the harrowing journey to the coast, and the dehumanizing conditions aboard slave ships are both shocking and enlightening. Through the juxtaposition of African suffering against the cruelty of the white crew, Haley evokes questions about humanity’s capacity for cruelty, prompting reflections on contemporary and historical atrocities alike.

Enduring Enslavement

Upon arrival in America, Kunta Kinte is forcibly renamed Toby and subjected to the relentless dehumanization of slavery. Haley’s narrative details the systemic erosion of Kunta’s identity, a process marked more by psychological coercion than physical violence. As Toby, he learns to navigate a society where his culture and language are disrespected and suppressed, a reality that underscores the cultural theft inflicted upon enslaved Africans.

A Legacy of Resilience

The birth of Kizzy Waller, Kunta’s daughter, marks the beginning of a new American lineage fraught with hardship yet imbued with resilience. Haley chronicles the family’s journey through the trials of slavery, illustrating how they clung to their humanity and dignity despite systemic oppression. The narrative highlights acts of resistance and survival, from the aspirations of Chicken George to the quiet defiance of Bell and the ingenuity of Tom Murray.

Beyond Slavery: The Path to Freedom

The family’s postwar migration to Tennessee symbolizes a search for a promised land, mirroring the biblical Exodus. Despite the nominal freedom obtained after the Civil War, Haley’s account reveals the persistent racial adversities faced by black Americans. The family’s eventual settlement and perseverance reflect the ongoing struggle for genuine autonomy and the fight against the newly established racial hierarchy.

Strengths and Challenges of Roots

As a narrative, Roots captures the American dream through the lens of black history, offering a synthesis of collective and familial perseverance. It enriches the historical discourse when read alongside the works of historians like Kenneth Stampp and John Hope Franklin. However, the novel is not without its flaws, including occasional historical inaccuracies and a less compelling portrayal of more recent familial generations, who are depicted as ordinary Americans rather than enduring symbols of struggle and triumph.

Fiction and Reality

Some critics question the accuracy of Haley’s family recollections and historical representations, raising doubts about the authenticity of his portrayal of Juffure and African society. Nevertheless, these critiques miss the point of Roots as a novel that creatively melds family lore with historical study. Haley’s work transcends strict historicism, providing a narrative that, while not flawless, captures the essence of a journey from enslavement to identity.

Television Adaptation and Cultural Legacy

The televised adaptation of Roots in 1977 brought Haley’s narrative to an even wider audience but was marred by melodramatic interpretations and historical oversights. Despite these shortcomings, the series succeeded in engaging a national consciousness and left an indelible impact on American society. As a cultural artifact, Roots should be evaluated for its literary contributions, acknowledging its role in shaping perceptions of race and identity in America.

American Slavery
Haley started writing his novels during the Civil Rights movement, and he conducted research for Roots at a time when African Americans and European Americans were reassessing slavery and its impact. Many people believed in what is often referred to as the "Gone With the Wind version" of slavery, where enslaved Africans were depicted as carefree, childlike individuals who were looked after by kind, paternalistic masters. One result of the Civil Rights movement was the challenge to this myth.

The truth about slavery was far more complicated. White masters were certainly invested in the myth of paternalism, which enabled them to justify the enslavement of human beings by claiming that the relationship between slaves and masters was reciprocal—the master would care for his slaves and, in return, claim the benefits of their labor.

Although African Americans rejected this myth, they often used paternalism to demand certain rights. Slaves came to expect certain entitlements: the right to practice their religion, no work on Sundays, and the right to be adequately fed and sheltered. Like Haley's characters, the slaves distinguished between good and bad masters. They were acutely aware of the general horrors of slavery but recognized that life was somewhat easier under a humane master.

Family was a crucial concept for slaves, who constantly faced the threat of being sold away from their loved ones. A master who sold family members was considered a bad master. After emancipation in 1865, many former slaves went to great lengths to find their lost relatives.

Often, slaves formed strong communities, viewing all blacks on the plantation as part of their extended family, similar to those on the Lea plantation. Children were raised with a large group of caretakers, providing them with role models, especially for those without fathers. Chicken George has this type of relationship with Uncle Mingo, his mentor in cockfighting.

The romanticized myth of slavery suggested that blacks and whites on plantations formed a kind of family unit. To some extent, this was true, as seen in Matilda's concern for the Murrays after the black Murrays were freed. However, like many slaves, Matilda's concern had its limits—she did not hesitate to move to Henning when the opportunity arose.

Eugene Genovese observes that many slaves feigned loyalty to ease their own lives. However, those who appeared the most "devoted" were often the first to leave after the Civil War. Whites believed that blacks cared for them like family, but even if some did, they chose to assert their freedom rather than stay with their former masters. Most slaves cherished their own families far more than they did their masters and mistresses. While close proximity could foster bonds, most slaves found it challenging to love someone who had the power to punish, sexually abuse, or sell them, even if that power was not always exercised.

Occasionally, blacks and whites on a plantation were relatives due to the common practice of whites coercing or raping African American women. As in Kizzy's case, even without violence, a slave woman's consent for sexual relations was impossible because her owner held the power to force her submission.

It was not rare for a master's children and siblings to also be his slaves, as seen in Chicken George's situation. While some slaveholders treated their own kin better than other slaves, many did not differentiate in their treatment.

Despite the hardships of enslavement, slaves built a resilient culture that helped them endure. Religion was a primary source of comfort, allowing them to look forward to freedom in the afterlife. Their religious practices united slaves into a community created by God. They cared for one another, referring to each other as "brother" and "sister" as on the Lea plantation, and supported each other to survive.

Contrary to the myth, all slaves experienced the hardships of slavery. As Tom states, it was often incomprehensible to whites that "being owned by anyone could never be enjoyable." Some slaves managed to escape successfully, sometimes with the assistance of whites and free blacks, although Kunta Kinte was never able to.

Most slaves, like Kunta, chose to stay with their families and plantation communities. Although they longed for the rights that whites took for granted, they adapted to the conditions of slavery. Their ability to adapt did not mean they preferred it to freedom, as many whites claimed. Haley's book, which chronicles the slaves' desire for freedom, was a revelation for many, both blacks and whites, who believed the old myths about slavery.

Narrative Technique and Perspective

In Roots: The Saga of an American Family, Alex Haley employs a third-person narrative voice, a choice that allows the story to traverse time and space with the characters as they evolve. This narrative flexibility is particularly evident when Kizzy is sold from the Waller plantation; the omniscient narrator follows her, chronicling her thoughts and experiences as she transitions to life on the Lea plantation. This technique seamlessly bridges the generational gaps, creating a continuous narrative from Kunta Kinte's initial capture to the life of Bertha Palmer Haley. At the book's culmination, the narrative voice shifts to first-person, offering a poignant connection when Haley himself enters the story, reflecting on his journey and heritage with a personal touch.

Changing Landscapes

The settings within Roots are as dynamic as its characters, mirroring their movements and transformations. The story originates in Juffure, Kunta Kinte's homeland, introducing readers to the vibrant life of a West African village. As Kunta is forcibly taken across the Atlantic, the setting transitions to the harrowing conditions onboard a slave ship. Upon arrival in America, the narrative anchors itself on the Virginia plantation where Kunta lives under the harsh realities of slavery. As characters like Kizzy are sold, the setting shifts alongside them, first to Tom Lea's plantation in North Carolina and later to Master Murray's estate within the same state. The geographical journey continues post-emancipation as the family resettles in Henning, Tennessee, encapsulating the American South's complex history. Ultimately, the novel's setting comes full circle when Haley visits Juffure, physically linking the past with the present.

Blending Fact and Fiction

Alex Haley describes Roots as "faction," a deliberate amalgamation of fact and fiction. This unique approach is designed to provide a realistic portrayal of the Mandinka culture and the grueling realities of slave life in early America. While Haley crafts the inner thoughts and dialogues of his characters, he grounds their experiences in actual historical events, thereby maintaining authenticity. His reliance on both oral traditions and documented history allows him to imbue the narrative with a sense of realism, imagining the psychological and emotional landscapes of his ancestors with insightful depth.

Episodic Plot Structure

The storyline of Roots unfolds in episodic fashion, exploring significant milestones and personal anecdotes that mark the lives of its characters. Haley meticulously crafts the narrative around pivotal events such as births, marriages, deaths, and the agonizing sales of family members. Noteworthy moments such as George's pivotal cockfighting matches or the Fiddler's dashed hopes for freedom highlight the personal struggles and triumphs within the broader historical context. The episodic nature of the plot allows the story to leap forward in time, focusing on moments of consequence while leaving mundane stretches behind, thereby maintaining the reader's engagement and emphasizing the journey's emotional weight.

Haley's Roots aims to debunk two prevalent and incorrect beliefs about black people: that there is no black history and that black family life doesn't exist. In Roots, Haley traces his ancestry back through seven generations to the 1750s in Africa. He powerfully demonstrates to readers that black history is real: "Any individual's past," Haley asserts, "is the essence of the millions." However, proving the existence of such a history is secondary to Haley's primary objective: to illustrate that black family life exists and has always been a central concern for black people.

In the "unspoiled" village of Kinte's birthplace, Juffure, society is highly organized. The family serves as the foundation of this society, fostering a sense of pride. There is a normal progression of development. Kinte's first name, Kunta, given to him by his parents, connects him to a previous generation, his grandfather. However, the institution of slavery disrupts family structures, destroys family pride, and shatters family life. Slaves are treated as property to be bought and sold, given names that don't reflect their heritage or context. The chance for normal societal growth is absent. Matilda's declaration of family unity — "We is family and we is gonna stay family" — echoes a sentiment likely found in eighteenth-century Juffure. Roots is fundamentally a family story, framed within the struggle for freedom. Kunta Kinte and his descendants endure as a family despite the challenges of slavery and later, white racism. They become emblematic of all black people who were sold into slavery. Sadly, the legacy of slavery continues to affect today's black community, as the ideal family life seen in Juffure remains elusive. The black family today is still more fragmented compared to other groups, although the aspiration and effort to unify persist.

• 1760s: Thousands of enslaved Africans are brought to ports across the American colonies.

  1970s: African Americans begin to delve into their African heritage.

  Today: The term "African American" has become the most widely used term for Americans of African descent. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. produces a series of public television programs focusing on African cultures.

• 1760s: Most white people are illiterate, and slaves are legally forbidden from learning to read and write.

  1970s: During the first full decade of enforced school integration, many black students are bused to predominantly white schools to achieve integration. Busing becomes a contentious issue.

  Today: Many African Americans question the benefits of integration. A concerning statistic shows that more black men are incarcerated than enrolled in college.

• 1760s: African Americans are forcibly brought to America as slaves to work on plantations in the South and other colonial areas.

  1970s: The legacy of slavery and ongoing racism make race relations a heated topic in America. A national conversation about racial issues begins, with many artists, writers, cultural figures, and politicians highlighting race in the American consciousness. Many African Americans start to explore their heritage and recognize the achievements of African Americans.

  Today: The scars of slavery remain unhealed. While racism persists, numerous laws have been instituted to combat institutionalized racism.

More than a century ago, Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) vividly portrayed the suffering of black slaves, touching the hearts and minds of millions. Additionally, there are numerous narratives and autobiographies from slaves and former slaves that provide insight into the black experience.

There have been accusations and defenses regarding Haley's alleged borrowing from Harold Courtlander's The African and Margaret Walker Alexander's Jubilee, both novels centered on the origins of slavery.

A Different Kind of Christmas (1988) is a fictional historical novel, while Haley's Roots is a factual historical account tracing his family's lineage over several generations. The profound impact of Roots stemmed from its meticulous documentation of a black family's genealogy. On the other hand, A Different Kind of Christmas delves into the evolving morality and innate goodness of individual white characters.

A Different Kind of Christmas centers on the escape of a dozen slaves from a North Carolina plantation during the 1850s Christmas season. Their successful flight grants them a priceless Christmas gift — freedom. In his concise one-hundred-page narrative, Haley contrasts two disparate lifestyles in mid-nineteenth-century America: the insular society of North Carolina's plantation life, where white plantation owners' wealth and comfort come at the expense of slaves, and the open society of Philadelphia, where black individuals enjoy political freedom and the right to own businesses. Similar to Roots, Haley underscores the injustice of slavery and debunks myths about black people. Even in households where slaves were treated relatively well, they were still regarded merely as property, to be bought and sold like any other commodity.

Haley acknowledges the efforts of the Quakers, who as early as 1688 in Pennsylvania, condemned slavery and protested "against the traffic of bodies of men and the treatment of men as cattle." Due to their strong opposition to slavery, many Quakers relocated from the South to the North. Those who remained in the South refused to use slave labor on their plantations. Additionally, some Quakers took significant risks to establish Underground Railroad centers in various northern regions, particularly in Philadelphia, to aid slaves in their quest for freedom.

The novel's central figure is nineteen-year-old Fletcher Randall, an honor student in his second year at Princeton University. He is the privileged son of a plantation owner and a senator in the North Carolina legislature. Proud of the southern way of life, Fletcher faces verbal harassment at Princeton from both northerners and southerners who oppose slavery. Two Quaker classmates, the Ellis brothers, invite him to visit their home in Philadelphia. During his stay, Fletcher is astonished to discover that a prominent businessman is both black and free, shattering his preconceived notion that black people are only capable of menial work. One day, he witnesses a protest rally against slavery, featuring both black and white participants.

At the university, Fletcher's moral philosophy professor, Dr. Erick Lincoln, introduces him to the works of former slave Frederick Douglass. Douglass wrote that "A government that cannot or does not protect . . . the humblest citizen in his right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness . . . should be reformed or overthrown without delay." Fletcher's experiences in Philadelphia, combined with his moral philosophy lessons, lead him to realize that his beliefs about black people and slavery are incorrect. He concludes that slavery in the South is morally indefensible. Choosing conscience over family, Fletcher volunteers to help the Underground Railroad and is assigned a mission to aid slaves escaping from his family's plantation: "It was his twenty-first birthday, the day he became a man."

Fletcher's father, who is hot-headed and stubborn, embodies the old order and the status quo of slavery. He blames "Yankees" for corrupting "well-raised native Southern whites" and believes that slaves are inferior and would not have the "faintest idea what to do with freedom" if emancipated. Mr. Fortas, a sailmaker and prominent black businessman that Fletcher saw in Philadelphia, serves as a counterexample to Senator Randall's prejudiced views.

Fletcher's mother, like the mother of the Ellis brothers, is gentle, loving, and concerned about her son. She enjoys reading the novels of Sir Walter Scott.

Harpin' John, a black servant, is a talented musician and a respectable individual. He is the designated "trusted conductor" who assists Fletcher in helping the slaves escape.

Despite a rather plain style, Haley succeeds in A Different Kind of Christmas in capturing the atmosphere, emotions, and customs of America in the 1850s. Haley creates suspense by presenting several obstacles for the central character to overcome before successfully facilitating the escape of a dozen slaves. The characterizations tend to be stereotypical: Fletcher Randall, his mother, and the Ellis brothers are all likable but one-dimensional. Similarly, Fletcher's father, Senator Randall, is depicted as the typical closed-minded racist and is also one-dimensional.

A twelve-hour, eight-part television adaptation of Roots premiered on ABC Television on January 23, 1977, roughly four months after the book's release. Some segments were directed by David Greene, who had recently directed the highly successful miniseries Rich Man, Poor Man. Produced by David Wolper Pictures, the series had an astounding budget of six million dollars. The final episode was viewed by an estimated audience of 90,000,000 people. Filming locations included Georgia and Hollywood, with an African village reconstructed in Georgia. The script was adapted from Haley's manuscript as he was completing it for the publication deadline of October 1, 1976. The television series was also sold to libraries as an educational resource. LeVar Burton, a nineteen-year-old newcomer, played the young Kunta Kinte, supported by a cast including Cicely Tyson, Edward Asner, Moses Gunn, Lorne Greene, Ben Vereen, O.J. Simpson, Maya Angelou, and others.

The television adaptation received an unprecedented thirty-seven Emmy nominations and was named the Outstanding Dramatic Series of the 1976-1977 season. However, there were concerns that the series was overly melodramatic and that it tended to stereotype white characters.

Two years later, a fourteen-hour sequel titled Roots: The Next Generations was produced, based on the books Roots and The Search for Roots, with a budget of sixteen million dollars. James Earl Jones starred as Alex Haley, and Marlon Brando made a ten-minute cameo appearance as George Lincoln Rockwell, earning an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor for his performance.

• Roots was turned into a television miniseries in 1977, featuring LeVar Burton, Ben Vereen, John Amos, Leslie Uggams, Maya Angelou, Cicely Tyson, Edward Asner, Harry Rhodes, and Robert Reed.
• A follow-up miniseries, Roots: The Next Generation, aired in 1979. It depicted the lives of Haley's descendants post-Civil War. Additionally, a Christmas special titled Roots: The Gift brought back Kunta Kinte, portrayed by Burton, and the Fiddler, played by Louis Gossett, Jr., to network television.

Sources
David Herbert Donald, in a review in Commentary, December 1976.

Chester J. Fontenot, "Radical Upbringing," in Prairie Schooner, Spring 1977, pp. 98-99.

Eugene D. Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made, Vintage, 1974.

Russell Warren Howe, "An Elusive Past," in The New Leader, January 3, 1977, pp. 23-24.

Philip Nobile, "Was Roots One of the Great Literary Hoaxes?" in The Toronto Star, March 8, 1993, p. A13.

Clarence Page, "Alex Haley's Enduring Truths," in The Courier Journal, March 11, 1993, p. 8A.

Arnold Rampersad, in a review in The New Republic, Vol. 175, No. 23, December 4, 1976, pp. 23-24, 26.

Pascoe Sawyers, "Black and White," in The Guardian, September 13, 1997, p. 6.

Howard F. Stein, "In Search of Roots: An Epic of Origins and Destiny," in Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. XI, No. 1, Summer 1977, pp. 11-17.

Paul D. Zimmerman, "In Search of a Heritage: Roots," in Newsweek, September 27, 1976, p. 94.

For Further Study
Russell Adams, "An Analysis of the Roots Phenomenon in the Context of American Racial Conservatism," in Presence Africaine, Vol. 116, No. 4, pp. 125-140. This article delves into the reasons behind the widespread acclaim of Roots.

Helen Davis Othow, "Roots and the Heroic Search for Identity," in CLA Journal, Vol. XXVI, No. 3, March 1983, pp. 311-324. Chavis describes Haley's work as representing "the feverish search for meaning in an alien universe."

Elizabeth Stone, Black Sheep and Kissing Cousins: How our Family Stories Shape Us, Penguin, 1989. Stone interviews one hundred individuals, documenting their family histories.

Tommie Morton Young, in Afro American Genealogy Sourcebook, Afragenda, 1998. Young offers a wide array of genealogical resources for those interested in tracing their own ancestry.