Old New York

"Roman Fever" was penned in the 1930s but is set in the 1920s. The characters and values in the story mirror the attitudes of New York's upper-class society from the latter half of the nineteenth century. Mrs. Slade and Mrs. Ansley are products of this affluent and leisurely environment. Wharton, the author, was part of this circle, enabling her to vividly depict this society in her narrative. In Wharton's era, families like the Astors and Vanderbilts sat at the pinnacle of the social hierarchy. Alongside these aristocrats with old names and inherited wealth were the arrivistes, who had recently amassed their fortunes and often surpassed the aristocrats in richness. High society engaged in activities such as attending the theater and opera, making and receiving social calls, attending lunch and dinner parties, traveling abroad, and summering in fashionable places like Newport, Rhode Island.

In this society, women were seen as moral arbiters. Despite this significant role, most families believed that girls did not need formal education. They thought education should serve only to meet a woman's future husband's needs. A woman's primary role was to be a homemaker, with her main goal being to secure a good marriage.

American Women in the 1920s and 1930s

The roles and accepted behaviors of American women in the 1920s and 1930s underwent transformation. After years of struggle, women gained the right to vote with the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920. Young women, known as "flappers," expressed their newfound independence by wearing shorter dresses, applying makeup, and cutting their long hair into bobs. They drove cars, played sports, and smoked in public. Increasingly, young women worked outside the home, which afforded them greater economic and social freedom. However, upon marriage, women were expected to quit their jobs and devote themselves to being wives and mothers. Despite societal changes and women's achievements, the homemaker remained the ideal image of American womanhood.

American Writers Abroad

Wharton was not the only American writer to spend a significant portion of her life abroad, traveling and writing. Many writers, known as the Lost Generation, including Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, lived in Europe during the 1920s. Gertrude Stein, another American, hosted a salon in Paris, where prominent artistic figures of the time gathered to discuss ideas. Many writers of the 1920s were deeply affected by the death and destruction of World War I. They also criticized middle-class consumerism and the superficiality of the post-war era. Expatriate writers often documented the rapid societal and cultural changes, highlighting the new standards that were emerging.

Italy in the 1920s and 1930s

During the 1920s and 1930s, Italy experienced significant political and social upheaval. Italians harbored resentment over their World War I experiences, especially because the Versailles peace treaty did not grant Italy the desired territory around the Adriatic Sea. In the post-war years, Italy faced economic challenges, including rising inflation and frequent workers' strikes. The government appeared ineffective in addressing these issues. Amidst this turmoil, Benito Mussolini emerged as a formidable leader. A fervent nationalist, Mussolini established Italy's Fascist Party, which ascended to power in the early 1920s. Starting in 1921, violent conflicts erupted between the Fascists and Communists, pushing Italy to the brink of civil war.

Mussolini soon became the Italian premier. As early as 1925, he voiced his ambition to establish a full dictatorship. He consolidated control over parliament and set up a secret police force, enabling him to suppress all opposition. Mussolini transformed Italy into a totalitarian state, where the government dominated every aspect of society, including politics, the economy, and culture.

Mussolini also bolstered the Fascist Party's militia, and in the 1930s, pursued his agenda of territorial expansion to make Italy an imperial power. In 1935, Italian forces invaded Ethiopia, and the African kingdom fell the following year. Italy also seized control of Albania on the Adriatic Sea and held territories in Northern Africa. This heightened aggression coincided with the rise of a totalitarian regime in Germany and increased militarism in Japan. By 1939, Europe was engulfed in World War II.

Edith Wharton's "Roman Fever" is a richly layered narrative that employs setting, point of view, structure, and symbolism to explore the depths of friendship and rivalry. This short story is set against the historical backdrop of Rome, where past and present intertwine to reveal long-held secrets between two women. Through her distinctive writing style, Wharton masterfully unravels the complex tapestry of emotions and hidden truths.

Setting

The story unfolds in the majestic yet ruinous city of Rome, Italy, around the mid-1920s. Wharton's descriptive prowess brings the ancient ruins to life, serving as an evocative metaphor for the decaying perceptions the two protagonists hold about each other. Rome, with its rich history and culture, stands in stark contrast to the box-like confines of Manhattan's East Side, where Mrs. Slade and Mrs. Ansley have lived in close proximity but with a tangible emotional distance. The city provides a liberating space where Mrs. Slade feels emboldened to disclose the truth about a letter from long ago, a revelation impossible in the stifled environment of their New York neighborhood, bound by routine and decorum.

Point of View

"Roman Fever" employs a third-person omniscient point of view, granting readers insight into the internal worlds of its characters. Mrs. Slade's inner monologue is particularly detailed, offering a window into her envy and antipathy toward Mrs. Ansley. Readers learn of her complex motivations, including her self-perception as a fundamentally good person despite her intent to wound her friend. Conversely, Mrs. Ansley's thoughts are less disclosed, adding an air of mystery to her motivations, such as her decision to reveal the truth about her daughter Barbara’s paternity.

Structure

The narrative is divided into two distinct sections, symbolizing the dichotomy between past and present. The first section delves into the shared history of Mrs. Slade and Mrs. Ansley, seeding the roots of their rivalry. Wharton skillfully uses dialogue to hint at underlying tensions, as seen when Mrs. Ansley emphasizes the pronouns "me" and "I," subtly alluding to her cherished memories with Delphin. In contrast, the second section amplifies the tension as Mrs. Slade maneuvers the conversation to unveil long-held secrets, culminating in the revelation about Barbara's true parentage.

Symbolism and Imagery

Wharton’s use of symbolism and imagery enriches the narrative, adding depth to the characters’ interactions. The ruins of the Palatine, the Forum, and the Colosseum mirror the crumbling facades of the women's friendship, both majestic and marred by time. Mrs. Ansley’s knitting, with its vivid crimson silk, represents her hidden passion and vibrancy beneath a composed exterior. This act of knitting serves as a shield during Mrs. Slade's probing, while later, it is Mrs. Slade who must hide her face after learning of Mrs. Ansley's meeting with Delphin.

The story concludes with a poignant shift in power dynamics, illustrated by Mrs. Ansley's physical movement. After the truth is revealed, she takes the lead, walking ahead of Mrs. Slade toward the stairway. This subtle change underscores the transformation in their relationship, leaving readers to ponder the enduring impact of secrets and revelations on friendship.

1920s: Malaria is a deadly, infectious disease. For example, in 1914, approximately 600,000 Americans died from malaria, mostly in the Mississippi River valley and along the East Coast. Notably, some of these deaths occurred because doctors used malaria to treat another deadly disease, syphilis.

1990s: The World Health Organization estimates that 300 to 500 million malaria cases are reported annually, leading to 1.5 to 2.7 million deaths. In developing nations, malaria ranks as one of the top causes of illness and death. The prevalence of malaria has actually increased in many countries during the latter half of the 20th century. However, malaria is a minimal threat to Western countries like the United States and Italy. In 1992, the United States reported 910 malaria cases, with only seven being locally acquired. Many of these cases occur within immigrant communities.

1920s and 1930s: Italy's government operates on totalitarian principles, with the state controlling all aspects of society, including the economy, politics, and culture. Benito Mussolini governs Italy with absolute authority.

1990s: Italy functions as a parliamentary republic. The prime minister leads the ruling party, while the president serves a largely ceremonial role. Throughout the decade, Italy's government has experienced some instability, frequently changing ruling parties.

1920s and 1930s: While exact figures are unavailable for the number of children born out of wedlock in the 1920s and 1930s, there was significant social stigma associated with illegitimacy. In the early 1920s, Wharton penned a story about an unwed mother, but it was rejected by nearly every magazine due to its controversial subject matter. The number of births to unmarried women has steadily risen from 5.3 percent of the population since the mid-1900s, suggesting that illegitimate births in the 1920s and 1930s were likely around or below 5.3 percent of the U.S. population.

1990s: Among U.S. women giving birth, 28 percent, or 1,165,384, are unmarried. The rate of illegitimate births has surged by 60 percent since 1980. Although some stigma around illegitimacy persists, it has become more accepted in American culture, as evidenced by the number of prominent single women with children and the openness with which these topics are discussed on talk shows.

Roman Fever is a single-act opera inspired by Wharton's short story. The music was composed by Robert Ward, with Roger B. Brunyate writing the vocal score. ECS Publishing released the work in 1993.

Sources

Butcher, Fanny. A review of The World Over, in the Chicago Daily Tribune, April 25, 1936, p. 10.

Goodman, Susan. Edith Wharton's Women, Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1990.

Hutchinson, Percy. A review of The World Over, in the New York Times, April 26, 1936, p. 6.

Lewis, R. W. B. Edith Wharton: A Biography, New York: Harper & Row, 1975.

McDowell, Margaret B. Edith Wharton, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991.

Petry, Alice Hall. "A Twist of Crimson Silk: Edith Wharton's 'Roman Fever,'" in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1987, pp. 163-166.

Review of The World Over, in Punch, May 6, 1936, p. 130.

Wharton, Edith. The Collected Short Stories of Edith Wharton, edited and introduced by R. W. B. Lewis, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968.

Further Reading

Bloom, Harold, ed. Edith Wharton, New York: Chelsea House, 1986.
A compilation of critical essays on Wharton's works.

Dwight, Eleanor. Edith Wharton: An Extraordinary Life, New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1994.
An overview of Wharton's life and times, featuring personal letters and photographs.

Lewis, R. W. B. Edith Wharton: A Biography, New York: Harper & Row, 1975.
A comprehensive exploration of Wharton's life and literature.

McDowell, Margaret B. Edith Wharton, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991.
A critical examination of Wharton's literary works.

Nevius, Blake. Edith Wharton: A Study of Her Fiction, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1953.
Challenges conventional critical views and provides insightful analysis of Wharton's fiction.

Wharton, Edith. Collected Letters of Edith Wharton, edited by R. W. B. Lewis and Nancy Lewis, New York: Scribner's, 1989.
A collection of 400 annotated letters by Wharton.

Wolff, Cynthia Griffin. A Feast of Words: The Triumph of Edith Wharton, New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.
Offers a psychological biography of Wharton along with literary criticism.