Dissenters

Dissenters, also known as Nonconformists, refer to Protestant ministers and congregations, including Quakers, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and Baptists, who opposed the authority of the Anglican Church. These groups refused to attend Anglican services, take communion, or adhere to the doctrines of the Church of England as mandated by the 1662 Act of Uniformity and the subsequent Five Mile Act.

The Act of Uniformity required all ministers to conform to the Book of Common Prayer. Those who resisted faced penalties under the Five Mile Act, which prohibited them from coming within five miles of their home parish or town.

When William and Mary ascended the throne in 1688, their need for funds and their belief in religious tolerance led them to enact the Toleration Act of 1689. This legislation allowed Dissenters to license their meeting houses with their own ministers, provided they swore oaths of allegiance to England in accordance with the Test Act.

The Restoration

When Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) assumed power in England in 1653, he established a stringent government based on Puritan values. While this benefited the middle class and merchants, his heavy taxation, authoritarian rule, and the lack of trial by jury or parliamentary representation gradually caused the English populace to despise him even more than they had Charles I.

Upon Cromwell's death in 1658, his son Richard (1628–1712) took over. However, Richard's lack of strength led to his resignation, pushing the army and parliament to the brink of civil war. The monarchy was ultimately restored when General George Monck invited Charles II to return.

Charles II (1630–1685) reinstated the British monarchy in May 1660. An eager parliament convened the following year, becoming known as the “Cavalier Parliament,” which lasted until 1679. The Church of England was reestablished by the Clarendon Code, which also required oaths of allegiance to the king and made it illegal to take up arms against the monarchy.

Colonialism

During the seventeenth century, two major European powers, Spain and Portugal, experienced significant declines. Spain's downfall began after a series of naval defeats, while Portugal could not withstand Dutch aggression. Although both nations retained control over several colonies, by the end of the seventeenth century, France and England had emerged as the dominant global powers.

England's North American colonies—Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607), and Plymouth, Massachusetts (founded in 1620)—were flourishing by the 1700s. These initial settlements were joined by new colonies, including the Carolinas (1663), Pennsylvania (1682), and various islands in the West Indies.

Glorious Revolution

Upon the death of Charles II, James II (1633–1701) ascended to the English throne. A devout Roman Catholic, James released many Catholics, Quakers, and Dissenters from imprisonment. Alarmed by his policies, the Earl of Argyll and the Duke of Monmouth attempted to overthrow the king in 1685. Their efforts failed largely due to a lack of support from the nobility and London merchants. Some speculate that Defoe himself was among those captured.

In 1688, James II had a son and began to enforce his Catholic policies, including Catholicizing the military. In response, the nobles and merchants risked their lives on an "invasion" by inviting the Protestant rulers William and Mary from the United Provinces (Netherlands).

William III (1650–1702), who had pledged to protect English liberties and Protestantism, arrived with an army in 1688 and advanced towards London without resistance. James II fled to Ireland, where he had strong support from the Jacobites. He also received backing from France and some Scottish clans. However, William III defeated the Scottish Jacobites at the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689.

The following year, William III defeated James II at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland. William then shifted his focus to Europe. Utilizing English funds and troops, he fought against the French in the War of the League of Augsburg until 1697. William's need for finances led to the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694, sparking a commercial revolution that eventually allowed Britain to dominate global trade.

England in 1719

By 1719, England had become a more tolerant and stable nation, resulting in a decrease in emigration to America. Defoe reported from London that wages for workers in England were high and unemployment was low. Although competition in the textile trade threatened the market, the English adapted and maintained their competitiveness.

Following the tumultuous periods of Cromwell and the Restoration, the Hanovers ascended to the throne. The Treaty of Utrecht granted English ships access to Spanish trade, a development that excited economists like Defoe about the market's potential.

When the stock market crashed in 1721 due to the South Sea Bubble, many wealthy individuals lost their fortunes. Unlike France's Mississippi Scheme, this event did not dampen English enthusiasm for capital speculation and stock trading. As a result, England recovered from the South Sea Bubble and developed the financial resources necessary to initiate the Industrial Revolution.

The story begins in mid-seventeenth-century York, offering a brief glimpse into Robinson Crusoe’s early life. It then transitions to the Moorish port of Sallee, where Crusoe is captured by pirates and imprisoned. After his escape, he relocates to Brazil and becomes a planter. From his Brazilian plantation, Crusoe embarks on a voyage to Africa, which ends in a shipwreck. As the sole survivor, he spends the next twenty-eight years on a deserted island.

Crusoe’s new home, a small hilly island off the South American coast, is inhabited only by wild animals and birds. Unfamiliar with much of the island’s lush vegetation, Crusoe discovers sugarcane, tobacco plants, melon and grape vines, and citrus trees. During an expedition to the far side of the island, he spots a nearby landmass that he cannot identify. In stark contrast to the bustling city where Crusoe was born and raised, the island is an unspoiled paradise, a true example of untamed nature.

Narrative

Robinson Crusoe is a fictional autobiography, narrated from a first-person perspective, seemingly written by an elderly man reflecting on his life. The narrative also incorporates content from an unfinished diary, seamlessly woven into the novel.

Spiritual Fable

Robinson Crusoe can be interpreted as a spiritual or religious allegory. Defoe had a deep interest in religious matters and nearly became a Dissenter minister. In the preface, Crusoe states his intention to “justify and honour the wisdom of Providence in all the variety of our circumstance.”

By doing this, Crusoe aligns himself with the tradition of religious instruction manuals. The novel exhibits similarities to four distinct types of spiritual fables. Firstly, Crusoe, like many Puritans, maintains a diary to document his journey toward salvation. A notable example of this type of spiritual biography is John Bunyan’s 1666 work, Grace Abounding.

The second form of spiritual fable present in Crusoe is the advisory or guide tradition. This type of fable targets specific audiences—such as seamen, farmers, young people, and women—to highlight the perils of human existence, particularly those relevant to them. These works aim to not only point out dangers but also offer solutions, typically through prayer.

The third tradition evident in Crusoe’s story is the tale of Providence. In these tales, God is seen as an entity who intervenes in human affairs. Crusoe frequently ponders whether events are manifestations of divine intervention.

The final form is the pilgrim allegory, exemplified by Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress (1678). This popular form often modernized the parables of the Prodigal Son or the story of Jonah.

In this narrative, a young man leaves home, thereby distancing himself from God due to pride, discontent, or rejection of a “calling.” God intervenes, often forcefully, to redirect the prodigal back to Him. Through this intervention, the individual realizes the need to return home or accept his calling, facing challenges and evils to reconcile with God. Crusoe’s journey mirrors this pattern.

Verisimilitude

Despite its strong religious themes, Defoe’s use of realism, or verisimilitude, stands out as a distinctive feature of the work. Defoe effectively applied and popularized modern realism.

Modern realism, as developed by Descartes and Locke and fully articulated by Thomas Reid, suggests that truth should be discerned at the individual level through sensory verification. The realistic aspects of Robinson Crusoe include detailed lists, a precise time scale, repetition, diary entries, and Crusoe’s ordinary character. Readers could almost use Robinson Crusoe as a practical guide if stranded on a deserted island.

Time

The notion of time is fundamental to the narrative structure of Robinson Crusoe. Defoe chronicles Crusoe’s life in a linear fashion. The meticulous details of Crusoe’s daily activities and experiences highlight the progression of time. Although these minute details might seem tedious to contemporary readers, they mirror the era's preoccupation with time.

Allegory

Numerous critics interpret Robinson Crusoe as an allegory for Defoe’s own life. The first such interpretation, proposed by Charles Gildon, was inspired by a remark in the preface of Defoe’s Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. Since then, many scholars have attempted to correlate Defoe’s life events with those of Crusoe, but none have succeeded.

Defoe’s earlier works lend support to this allegorical perspective. His notebook of meditations, penned at the age of twenty-one, suggests that the story of Robinson Crusoe had been on his mind long before the popular tales of Alexander Selkirk emerged.

Further evidence is found in Defoe’s most autobiographical work, An Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715). Defoe recounts enduring profound loneliness while remaining “silent under the infinite Clamours and Reproaches, causeless Curses, unusual Threatnings, and the most unjust and injurious Treatment in the World.” Although it remains uncertain whether Robinson Crusoe is a direct allegory for Defoe’s life, it undoubtedly reflects his views on isolation and industriousness.

Robinson Crusoe is celebrated as a significant milestone in the evolution of English prose fiction. One of the most intriguing aspects is Defoe's use of narrative techniques to create a sense of reality in his story.

Though Defoe's work is fictional, he gives it the illusion of being a true account by including a preface where he claims to be the editor of the tale. The story's authenticity is further enhanced by the first-person narration, frequent references to dates and real locations in Crusoe’s early life, and the inclusion of precise details and accurate descriptions.

Defoe often incorporates images from everyday life and nature, highlighting Robinson Crusoe’s middle-class background and preferences. The similes and metaphors are inspired by nature and are written in a style reminiscent of biblical proverbs.

While the plot of the book is somewhat loose, rambling, and disorganized, it features a rich array of interesting, amusing, or captivating episodes. These episodes showcase Defoe’s celebration of human ingenuity and his exceptional ability to detail and create vivid imagery.

Robinson Crusoe, told from a first-person perspective, centers around the titular character. The other significant character, Friday, appears after two-thirds of the narrative has unfolded.

Crusoe possesses an inherently adventurous spirit. Defying his father’s “serious and excellent counsel,” he pursues a seafaring career to satisfy his “wandering inclination.” Even later in life, after returning to England, marrying, having three children, and becoming a widower, Crusoe once again ventures to sea, embarking on a lengthy voyage to China.

I learned to look more upon the bright side of my condition, and less upon the dark side.

Robinson Crusoe’s character is a study in contradictions. He oscillates between being a fervent capitalist and a reflective Christian; an adventurer drawn to exploration and a refined Englishman who creates a comfortable home for himself; a proponent of human dignity and a slave trader. Defoe presents these contradictions as typical traits of a middle-class English Protestant tradesman of the era.

Conversely, Friday, a native from a nearby island, is portrayed as a savage—a reformed cannibal. Crusoe views Friday as his “faithful, loving, sincere servant”; notably, the first English word Crusoe teaches Friday is “Master.”

Many significant themes in Robinson Crusoe are embodied in the title character and his relationship with Friday. Through the tale of Crusoe’s stay on the island, Defoe extensively comments on various social and philosophical ideas. The novel serves as an allegory for a journey from spiritual estrangement to redemption, with Crusoe’s life transitioning from rebellion to punishment, conversion, and ultimately deliverance. However, Robinson Crusoe is also an economic document, emphasizing the taming of an untamed environment, depicting Crusoe as a meticulous recorder of his projects and crops, and illustrating the colonial mindset in Crusoe’s education of Friday. Furthermore, Crusoe’s journal includes numerous passages where he contemplates time, labor, and the accumulation of material wealth.

Robinson Crusoe touches on two significant issues, racism and religion, which parents and educators should discuss with young, advanced readers. Crusoe's views on Xury, his companion in slavery and fellow escapee, as well as on Friday, his devoted servant, reflect the seventeenth-century English attitude of superiority over darker-skinned races. Crusoe evidently believes in the inherent superiority of white people. Additionally, his business dealings have included slave trading. However, it's important to recognize that Crusoe is a product of his time. His form of prejudice is relatively mild for that era, softened by a genuine intent to always do what he believes is right. For example, although Crusoe sells Xury to a Portuguese captain, he does so only because the captain promises to free Xury after ten years.

During his prolonged isolation, Crusoe remains committed to his religious practices and often refers to a Christian God who dictates human fate and everyday life. Readers should remember that Crusoe is very much influenced by his societal context. His form of Christianity was standard for a man of his social standing, and his frequent self-reflection was a significant aspect of his religious background.

The issues raised by Defoe’s handling of racism and religion are important and could serve as starting points for discussions about the novel. Younger readers, who may have limited understanding of the world, are likely to focus on the adventure aspect of the story. In contrast, older readers could gain from conversations about how values and beliefs have shifted and evolved over the past two centuries.

1600s: Religion is a central aspect of life. Numerous European nations—such as England, Spain, the Netherlands, and Portugal—persecute religious reformers and dissenters. Consequently, many religious radicals migrate to the New World to freely practice their faith.

Early 1700s: Religious zeal diminishes. The philosophes in France attempt to eliminate religion from their society, but with limited success.

Today: While not universal, religious tolerance is generally accepted. A significant portion of the global population still adheres to some form of organized religion.

1600s: Nations such as England, France, and Spain aim to remain dominant imperial powers. Sustaining colonial control and developing a powerful military is very costly.

Early 1700s: Innovations in banking in Amsterdam and the establishment of the Bank of England lay the groundwork for modern national finance, introducing the concept of national debt.

Today: In impoverished countries, national debt hinders their ability to compete with wealthier nations. In affluent countries, national debts cause considerable concern, yet they are crucial to the global financial system.

1600s: Trade primarily involves raw materials, luxury items, or costly manufactured products. Occupational specialization is increasing in European economies. For instance, a farmer might start concentrating on dairy production.

Early 1700s: Manufactured goods become more abundant and affordable. The average person can now purchase bread, candles, and cloth from specialized vendors.

Today: The economies of most Western countries have transitioned from manufacturing to technology.

Thrilled by the remarkable success of Robinson Crusoe, Defoe released Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe just four months later in 1719, followed by Serious Reflections during the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: with his Vision of the Angelick World in 1720.

Neither sequel achieved the same level of acclaim as the original. Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe narrates Crusoe’s subsequent voyages, including a revisit to the island to discover its fate in his absence. Similar to the first book, Crusoe credits his successful endeavors to the workings of Providence.

Serious Reflections, in contrast to the first two books, is a moralistic treatise, serving as a manual of piety rather than a travel narrative. This third installment was even less popular than its predecessor, as it lacked the thrilling adventures that Defoe’s audience had come to expect.

Like many other popular novels, Defoe’s work has caught the eye of the film industry; to date, eight films based on the Crusoe story have been produced in four different countries. The first film was the silent Robinson Crusoe (1927), a British production. Subsequent adaptations included Robinson Crusoe of Mystery Island (1936), The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1954), Robinson Crusoe on Mars (1964), and Robinson Crusoe and the Tiger (1972), a unique version told from a tiger’s perspective. The most faithful adaptation is Luis Buñuel’s The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, filmed in Mexico. Additionally, three animated versions of the story have been created.

Since the 1916 silent black-and-white film featuring Robert Paton Gibbs, there have been approximately sixteen film adaptations of Robinson Crusoe. These adaptations include versions in French, Spanish, Russian, Swiss, and German.

This number does not account for all the spin-offs, such as a female Crusoe in a silent film from 1917 or animated versions like Rabbitson Crusoe (1956), where Crusoe is depicted as a rodent. In 1965, Robinson Crusoe was adapted into a TV series, and in 1974, a TV movie was produced in the United Kingdom.

A more recent adaptation of Defoe’s novel is the 1996 film Robinson Crusoe, produced by USA Pictures. Directed by Rod Hardy and George Miller, this version stars Pierce Brosnan as a love-stricken Robinson Crusoe, separated from his beloved.

Bell, Ian. Defoe’s Fiction. London: Croom Helm, 1985. Though somewhat academic in tone, this study offers an insightful chapter on interpreting Defoe’s work within the context of his era. The section on Robinson Crusoe examines the novel as a piece of adventure literature.

Bloom, Harold, ed. Daniel Defoe: Modern Critical Views. New York: Chelsea House, 1987. This anthology features a representative selection of the finest Defoe criticism from the past thirty years, including two essays that focus specifically on Robinson Crusoe.

Ellis, F. H., ed. Twentieth Century Interpretations of Robinson Crusoe. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Despite being somewhat dated, this collection remains a valuable resource.

Moore, J. B. A Checklist of the Writings of Daniel Defoe. 1960. Revised edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971. This work is the definitive guide to Defoe’s writings.

Rogers, Pat. Robinson Crusoe. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1979. Aimed at knowledgeable nonacademic readers, Rogers offers a comprehensive introduction to Defoe’s novel, covering its literary and intellectual backgrounds as well as its critical reception.

Stoler, John A. Daniel Defoe: An Annotated Bibliography of Modern Criticism, 1900–1980. New York: Garland, 1984. This annotated bibliography serves as a valuable reference tool.

Sources

Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s, New York University Press, 1984.

James Beattie, “On Fable and Romance,” in his Dissertations Moral and Critical, W. Strahan, 1783.

Theophilus Cibber, “De Foe,” in The Lives of the Poets of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. IV by Mr. Cibber and Other Hands, R. Griffiths, 1753, pp. 313–25.

Charles Gildon, The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Mr. D-De F-, J. Roberts, 1719.

Peter Hulme, “Robinson Crusoe and Friday,” in his Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492–1797, Methuen, 1986.

Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry, North Carolina Press, 1998.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, “Rousseau on ‘Robinson Crusoe’,” in Defoe: The Critical Heritage, edited and translated by Pat Rogers, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972, pp. 52–4.

Sir Walter Scott, “Daniel Defoe,” in On Novelists and Fiction, edited by Ian Williams, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968, pp. 164–83.

For Further Study

Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900, Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Crosby explores the ecological history of colonial expansion, detailing how epidemics decimated populations previously unexposed to certain diseases. He also describes how Old World animals and plants took root in the New World, including the practice of leaving goats on islands to ensure a European-style food supply.

Peter Earle, The World of Defoe, Atheneum, 1977.
Earle delves into Defoe’s worldview and examines social relations in eighteenth-century England.

Maximilian E. Novak, Defoe and the Nature of Man, Oxford University Press, 1963.
Novak provides a thematic analysis of Defoe’s fiction, drawing on contemporary authors and Defoe’s other writings.

John J. Richetti, Popular Fiction Before Richardson, Clarendon Press, 1969.
Richetti traces the development of the novel by examining early works, making this an essential resource for understanding the genre's origins.

Pat Rogers, Robinson Crusoe, George Allen and Unwin, 1979.
Rogers commends Defoe’s novel for its narrative mastery and its exploration of psychological and spiritual experiences.

Arthur Secord, Studies in the Narrative Method of Defoe, University of Illinois Press, 1968.
Secord investigates Defoe’s narrative techniques.

Diana Spearman, The Novel and Society, London, 1966.
Spearman is one of the few twentieth-century critics to analyze Robinson Crusoe as a work of religious instruction. She argues that a man isolated on an island is an excellent metaphor for exploring an individual's relationship with God in an increasingly secular world.

Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding, Chatto and Windus, 1957.
This seminal work examines the novel as a historical document that reflects human thought and societal changes.