Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Alexander, Michael, The Poetic Achievement of Ezra Pound, University of California Press, 1979, 247 pages.
Eliot, T. S., "The Method of Pound," The Athenaeum, No. 4669, October 24, 1919, pp. 1065-66.
Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.
O'Connor, William Van, Ezra Pound, ("University of Minnesota Pamphlets on American Writers" series, No. 26), University of Minnesota Press, 1963.
Pratt, William, "Ezra Pound and the Image," in Ezra Pound: The London Years: 1908-1920, edited by Philip Grover, AMS Press, 1978, pp. 15-30.
Rosenthal, M. L., and Sally M. Gall, "Ezra Pound I: The Early Sequences," in their The Modern Poetic Sequence: The Genius of Modern Poetry, Oxford University Press, 1983, pp. 184-203.
Ward, David E., "The Emperor's Clothes?" Essays in Criticism, January 1968, pp. 68-73.
For Further Study
Chisholm, Lawrence W., Fenollosa: The Far East and American Culture,
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963.
This book provides an intriguing exploration of the impact of Oriental thought
and art on various American artists and philosophers.
Froula, Christine, A Guide to Ezra Pound's Selected Poems, New York:
New Directions, 1982.
This insightful introduction to Pound includes commentary on the perspectives
of the wife in "The River Merchant's Wife."
Kenner, Hugh, The Poetry of Ezra Pound, Norfolk, CT: New Directions,
1951.
One of the most comprehensive sources for a lucid introduction to Pound and his
poetry.
Witemeyer, Hugh, The Poetry of Ezra Pound: Forms and Renewal,
1908-1920, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.
This book examines Pound's views on Chinese poetry, highlighting its connection
to Imagism.
Yip, Wai-lim, Ezra Pound's Cathay, Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1969.
In this thorough study of Cathay, Yip analyzes three stages of the
poems: the original, Fenollosa's English rendition, and Pound's
translation.
Historical Context
Chinese history is a rich and intricate tapestry. Archaeologists believe the first organized society, the Shang dynasty, existed from around 1500 to 1100 B.C. Excavations reveal a culture that was both agrarian and artistic. From these early days, Chinese civilization evolved into a sophisticated governmental system, alongside a rich tradition in philosophy and the arts. Although similar developments were happening around the Mediterranean Sea, contact between these cultures was sporadic and primarily based on trade. The Silk Road facilitated caravans between China and the Roman Empire, but interactions were mostly limited to commercial exchanges controlled by traders dominating the route.
Due to the economic significance of this trade, the Han dynasty, which governed China from approximately 200 B.C. to 200 A.D., expanded China's boundaries to gain control of the Silk Road. However, they showed little interest in cultural exchanges with outsiders. The Han ruled using a tribute system, believing non-Chinese were barbarians. Diplomatic relations and trading rights were extended only to those who recognized Chinese superiority and proved it through tribute payments. This attitude persisted throughout most of Chinese history. Although visitors came to learn from the achievements of various dynasties, they remained outsiders and were not assimilated into Chinese society.
This was also true during the Tang dynasty, which took control in the seventh century. Many historians refer to this period as the golden age of China, which was then the wealthiest and most extensive empire in the world. Literature, painting, sculpture, and other arts flourished. Scholarship was encouraged, and two encyclopedias were produced during this era. The Chinese also made several technological advances, and government was guided by a code of laws based on Confucian principles.
Chinese culture during this time starkly contrasted with the Western world. In the eighth century, when Chinese poet Li Po wrote, Europe was struggling to emerge from the chaos following the fall of the Roman Empire. Muslim Arabs had invaded Spain, and Slavic invaders attacked from the East. Although...
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Charlemagne attempted to recreate a new Holy Roman Empire, strong nation-states in Europe would not emerge for several more centuries. Ironically, the old trade routes between East and West continued without interruption, as the turmoil did not diminish the demand for spices from the Orient.
By the twelfth century, however, the balance of power shifted. Warring factions weakened China, leaving it vulnerable to the Mongol forces led by the formidable Genghis Khan, who extended his empire across Asia. After his death, power was divided among his sons, and China came under the care of his son, Kublai Khan, who recognized and appreciated the achievements and scholarship of the Chinese.
Kublai Khan is well-known to Westerners primarily due to Marco Polo's writings, who visited the imperial court in 1275. When his descriptions of the opulence and even superiority of the Asian world reached Europe, they were initially dismissed as mere fantasy. However, centuries of commercial contact between East and West eventually led to additional reports that corroborated Marco Polo's claims. The wealth of the Orient soon became an irresistible draw for Western explorers and adventurers.
During the late medieval and Renaissance periods, both China and the emerging European nations were proud, even arrogant. Chinese dynasties felt no need to extend beyond their borders, being self-sufficient and rich in culture. They regarded foreigners as barbarians. Conversely, in the West, the rise of powerful nation-states ignited a desire for exploration and conquest. Explorers believed the newly discovered lands were theirs to claim and exploit. Seafaring voyages renewed interest in the East. Columbus’s journey, funded by Spain's Ferdinand and Isabella, was motivated by the prospect of profits from the Orient. The Portuguese, who first reached China in 1514, aimed to control the lucrative spice trade, then dominated by Arab traders. Chinese authorities were disturbed by the arrival of these "barbarians." There were rumors in regions where the Portuguese sailed that they were cannibals seeking to abduct children for consumption. The Chinese government tried to restrict foreign influence, denying permission for mainland colonies. Only mercantile, not diplomatic, relations existed between China and Europe.
As the West pressured China to allow more trade, conflict became unavoidable. Both sides felt unfairly treated and considered their culture superior. England was frustrated by China's lack of response to its diplomatic efforts, while China was insulted by the insensitive behavior of English diplomats. England desired Chinese tea but had no goods that appealed to the Chinese. Consequently, they attempted to force China to legalize opium so they could trade it from India for tea. This led to the Opium Wars, in which England emerged victorious, compelling China to open more ports and permit opium imports.
Despite China's efforts to resist Western aggression, the nation faced continued attacks on its sovereignty. This resentment led to the formation of secret societies that, in 1899, launched attacks against Westerners in China. Although the Boxer Rebellion was suppressed within a year, it contributed to the establishment of a new government in China. In 1912, just three years before Cathay was published, the Republic of China was founded with Sun Yat-sen as its president.
Style and Technique
Structure and Imagery
The poem “The River-Merchant’s Wife: A Letter,” translated by Ezra Pound, is meticulously structured into five stanzas, each serving a distinct purpose. The first stanza consists of six lines, followed by three stanzas of four lines each, before culminating in a ten-line final stanza with a dropped half-line. Each of the initial stanzas is intensely image-centered, encapsulating an emotional milestone in the life shared by the river-merchant’s wife and her absent husband. As the poem progresses to its final stanza, it introduces a central image that gradually gathers depth with each line, ultimately shifting to a direct emotional outpouring. The closing lines blend the letter’s conversational tone with imagery that bridges the physical and emotional gap between the couple.Influence of Chinese Ideograms
Ezra Pound drew significant inspiration from the pictorial essence of Chinese ideograms, which he believed captured the essence of objects in their purest form. This admiration translated into a poetic technique that elevates everyday moments to the realm of lyrical beauty. By intertwining natural speech rhythms with focused imagery, Pound crafts a poem that mirrors the simplicity and directness of the ideograms from which it originates. This technique imparts a sense of immediacy and intimacy, resembling the natural flow of a letter, yet enriched with vivid, evocative images.Centrality of Imagery and Line Structure
Pound’s poetry emphasizes the crucial role of imagery, shaping the poem’s structure and flow. The varied lengths of the unrhymed free verse lines are deliberate choices, tailor-made to encapsulate the essence of each stanza’s central image. Known as end-stopped lines, this method ensures each line conveys a complete thought without extending into the next. Capitalization at the beginning of each line directs the reader's attention to the distinct poetic lines, rather than conventional sentence structures, as the fundamental units of meaning.First-Person Perspective
The poem’s use of direct address places readers in the shoes of the river-merchant’s wife, seeing through her eyes. The narrative unfolds in the first person, with the wife as the "I," forging a connection between her past experiences and the reader. This technique allows the audience to empathize and engage with the emotional landscape of the poem. The second-person "you" further invites readers into the narrative, transforming the poem into a personal letter that speaks directly to them, fostering a singularly personal connection between the wife, the absent husband, and the audience.Topics for Further Study
In 1948, Ezra Pound was awarded the Bollingen Prize for his poetic contributions, a decision surrounded by controversy due to his wartime accusations of treason. An exploration of this debate reveals the complexities of separating an artist’s work from their personal actions. Additionally, the poem’s letter form is a recurring device in literature and music, prompting comparisons with other works that utilize this technique. Finally, a comparative analysis of the challenges faced by both Pound and the original poet, Li-Po, in dealing with governmental authorities, could yield insights into the broader implications of their work and personal struggles.Media Adaptations
In 1995, Unapix published a biography called Ezra Pound.
The 1988 Mystic Fire Video, Ezra Pound: Visions and Voices, showcases Pound's life and his poetry.
