Richard II
Richard II’s reign was marked by a complex interplay of ambition, political machinations, and ultimately, his deposition. In his quest to affirm royal power, Richard contended with powerful noblemen and the Parliament, which sought to check his authority. His reign presents a nuanced reflection of the constitutional struggles of late medieval England, where the monarch’s will was increasingly counterbalanced by the demands of the nobility and Parliament.
Early Life
Richard of Bordeaux, born on January 6, 1367, was the younger son of Joan, "the Fair Maid," Countess of Kent, and the Black Prince, Edward, Prince of Wales. His formative years unfolded at the abbey of St. André in Bordeaux, France, until he moved to England in 1371 with his ailing father. Details of Richard’s early education remain sparse, though it is assumed that he absorbed the essential workings of a princely court, received foundational education from tutors, and formed bonds with his siblings, including his older brother, Edward, and half-brothers Thomas Holland and John Holland.
Richard’s path to the throne was paved by a succession of bereavements. His brother Edward passed away at seven in 1371, followed by the death of his father in 1376, and finally his grandfather, King Edward III, in 1377. At just ten years old, Richard ascended to the throne, becoming King of England, although his rule was initially under the stewardship of a regency council dominated by his uncles, John of Gaunt and Thomas Woodstock. This council mirrored the era’s political diversity and acted in Richard’s name until he assumed full control in 1389.
The Peasants’ Revolt of 1381
Richard’s reign coincided with the Hundred Years’ War with France, which necessitated a series of parliamentary sessions to raise taxes. The fiscal strain following the Black Death and the persistent demands for war funding led to the controversial poll tax of 1380. This tax, levied per individual rather than proportionally to income, sparked widespread discontent, culminating in the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.
Led by figures like John Ball and Wat Tyler, the rebellion saw peasants marching to London, venting their grievances against oppressive taxes and unjust landlords. At merely fourteen, Richard confronted the rebels and expressed a willingness to address their concerns, although the revolt ended abruptly with Tyler’s death at the hands of royal guards. This encounter fortified Richard’s perception of his role as a monarch capable of addressing the kingdom’s tribulations.
Political Turmoil and the "Merciless Parliament"
As Richard matured, he began to assert his vision for the kingdom, resulting in a divided regency council. His marriage to Anne of Bohemia in 1382 further solidified his position, yet tensions remained, particularly with his uncle John of Gaunt. When John left for Portugal in 1386, Thomas Woodstock, or Gloucester, rose to prominence, inciting Parliament to scrutinize Richard’s financial governance.
This unrest led to the "Merciless Parliament" of 1388, where Gloucester orchestrated impeachment proceedings against Richard’s advisers, leading to executions and exiles. Although Richard declared his capacity to rule independently in 1389, he remained, to some extent, under his uncles’ shadow. The kingdom enjoyed relative prosperity and peace during this period, but the death of Queen Anne in 1394 left Richard without an heir, prompting a strategic marital alliance with Isabella, the daughter of King Charles VI of France, in 1395.
Retribution and Absolutism
Despite past humiliations, Richard sought retribution in 1397 by arresting key figures involved in the 1388 purges, including Gloucester. Accused of treason, they faced severe sentences, with Gloucester mysteriously dying in captivity. From this point, Richard’s reign took on an increasingly autocratic character. He imposed arbitrary fines on counties that had opposed...
(This entire section contains 1171 words.)
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him and banished both Thomas Mowbray and Henry Bolingbroke, the latter being John of Gaunt’s son, thus alienating powerful factions within the nobility.
The death of John of Gaunt in 1399 provided Richard with an opportunity to seize his estates, denying Bolingbroke his rightful inheritance and further souring relations with the nobility. This act of overreaching royal authority created a groundswell of discontent, setting the stage for Richard’s downfall.
Richard’s Downfall
While Richard campaigned in Ireland in 1399, Bolingbroke capitalized on the king’s absence, returning from exile to reclaim his estates. Bolingbroke’s swift gathering of support from Parliament and the nobility presented a formidable challenge to Richard’s authority. Faced with overwhelming opposition, Richard was compelled to abdicate on September 29, 1399, paving the way for Bolingbroke to ascend as Henry IV.
Richard’s fall from grace was sealed by Parliament’s ratification of his deposition due to his "crimes and cruelties." Imprisoned initially in the Tower of London and later at Pontefract Castle, Richard met an untimely and suspicious end in February 1400.
Legacy and Constitutional Implications
The reign of Richard II, albeit turbulent and brief, serves as a poignant example of the challenges facing medieval English monarchs. His confrontations with his uncles and Parliament underscore the complexity of royal power in the late Middle Ages, where sovereignty was increasingly contested by both noble interests and parliamentary authority. Despite Richard’s vision of a centralized royal authority, his reign ultimately reinforced the notion that a king’s power was not absolute.
Richard’s deposition underscored a pivotal constitutional development in England, demonstrating that subjects had the capacity to resist and even dethrone a monarch perceived as tyrannical. This shift laid the groundwork for the ongoing evolution of English governance, where monarchs would be subjected to the checks and balances enforced by an increasingly assertive Parliament. Over the subsequent centuries, this dynamic would lead to the progressive limitation of royal prerogatives, shaping the constitutional landscape of England.
Bibliography
Costain, Thomas B. The Last Plantagenets. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1962. A popular and anecdotal account of the reigns of English kings from Richard II through Richard III (1377-1485). Costain places much emphasis on the character and personality of the rulers.
Fowler, Kenneth. The Age of Plantagenet and Valois. New York: Putnam Publishing Group, 1967. A handsomely illustrated and informative book about England and France during the Hundred Years’ War. The book surveys the causes and the course of the conflict, as well as providing descriptions of the social context and the nature of the war itself.
Hilton, Rodney. Bond Men Made Free: Medieval Peasant Movements and the English Rising of 1381. New York: Methuen and Co., 1977. The standard modern account of the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, set in the context of the late fourteenth century and the economic crisis caused by the Black Death and the Hundred Years’ War. The book also surveys the general history of peasant revolts in the Middle Ages.
Holmes, George. The Later Middle Ages, 1272-1485. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1962. A survey of the High Middle Ages in England, Holmes’s work provides a balanced overview of social, ecclesiastical, and political history, in addition to a brief history of the Wars of the Roses.
McKisack, May. The Fourteenth Century, 1307-1399. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959. A standard and authoritative book about England during the fourteenth century. While somewhat dated, this thorough survey provides the reader with an abundance of detail and an extensive bibliography.
